PRIMARY    HANDWORK 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 

ATLANTA    •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


BY 


ELLA  VICTORIA   DOBBS,   B.S.,  A.M. 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR   OF   MANUAL   ARTS 
UNIVERSITY   OF    MISSOURI 


Nefo  gotfe 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1915 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1914, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  June,  1914.     Reprinted 
June,  1915. 


NorinooD 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


DEDICATED   TO 
THE   LITTLE   CHILDREN   OF   AMERICA 

WITH   THE   WISH 

THAT   ALL   THEIR   SCHOOL   DAYS 
MAY   BE   HAPPY   DAYS 


358902 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  long  experience  as  a 
teacher  of  primary  grades,  followed  by  special  study  of 
handwork  as  a  factor  in  elementary  education.  It  is 
written  with  three  objects  in  view: 

First,  to  gather  into  a  single  volume  various  methods 
already  in  use  in  the  more  progressive  schools,  and  for 
which  the  best  suggestions  are  scattered  through  current 
periodicals : 

Second,  to  organize  these  methods  and  present  them 
in  a  simple  form  for  the  use  of  teachers  who  have  had 
no  special  training  in  handwork  processes : 

Third,  accepting  conditions  as  they  exist  in  the  small 
town  school  and  the  one-room  country  school,  as  a  basis 
of  organization,  to  offer  suggestions  which  may  be 
easily  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  any  school  with  a 
view  to  bringing  present  practice  into  closer  harmony 
with  the  best  educational  ideals. 

No  claim  is  laid  to  originality,  beyond  the  small  de- 
tails in  which  one  person's  interpretation  of  a  large 
problem  will  differ  from  that  of  another. 

The  projects  here  outlined  have  been  tested  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  Columbia,  Missouri,  under  conditions 
which  are  common  to  towns  of  about  the  same  size. 

The  point  of  view  has  been  influenced  chiefly  by 
the  educational  philosophy  of  Prof.  John  Dewey,  es- 
pecially as  expressed  in  his  essay  "  The  Child  and  the 
Curriculum."  The  author  wishes  here  to  make  grate- 


Vlll  PREFACE 

ful  acknowledgement  to  Dr.  Dewey,  not  only  for  the 
helpfulness  of  his  writings,  but  also  for  the  inspiration 
of  his  teaching. 

Thanks  are  also  due  to  Dr.  Naomi  Norsworthy  of 
Teachers  College,  and  to  Dean  W.  W.  Charters  of 
Missouri  University,  for  encouragement  in  planning  the 
book  and  for  criticism  of  the  manuscript.  Especial 
acknowledgment  is  here  made  to  Prof.  R.  W.  Selvidge 
of  Peabody  College  for  Teachers,  formerly  of  this  Uni- 
versity, for  hearty  cooperation  and  helpful  suggestions 
in  working  out  the  problems  described  in  this  book, 
and  to  the  teachers  of  the  Columbia  Schools  for  their 
most  efficient  services  in  testing  these  problems  in  their 

classrooms. 

E.  V.  D. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI, 
February,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


1. 

II. 

PAPER  CUTTING  AND  POSTER  MAKING 

6 

III. 

BOOKLETS  . 

•       17 

IV. 

CRITICISM  AND  STANDARDS  OF  WORKMANSHIP 

.      24 

V. 

THE  HOUSE  PROBLEM 

27 

VI. 

THE  VILLAGE  STREET       

.      65 

VII. 

SAND  TABLES  AND  WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  THEM  . 

•      77 

VIII. 

ANIMALS  AND  TOYS  

.       102 

IX. 

HOLIDAYS  

.       112 

X. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  AND  SUMMARY     . 

.       115 

REFERENCES 123 


IX 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


House  of  the  Three  Bears        .         .  .         .        Frontispiece 

1.  Paper  Cutting.     First  Grade    ......         7 

2.  Paper  Cutting.     Second  Grade 8 

3.  Paper  Cutting.     Second  Grade 10 

4.  Paper  Tearing  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .11 

5.  Paper  Cutting.     Third  Grade  ......       13 

6.  Paper  Cutting.     Fourth  Grade          .         .         .         .         -15 

7.  Pamphlet  Sewing      ........       22 

8.  Japanese  Sewing 22 

9.  House  arranged  on  a  Shelf       .         .         .         .         ...       28 

10.  A  Medieval  Castle 29 

11.  House  arranged  on  a  Table  —  Front  View         ...       32 

12.  House  arranged  on  a  Table  —  Side  View  33 

13.  House  arranged  on  a  Table  —  Back  View          ...       34 

14.  House  Plan 35 

15.  Arrangement  of  Windows         ......       36 

1 6.  Detail  of  Hollow  Square 38 

17.  Borders 39 

18.  Looms  and  Samples  of  Weaving 41 

19.  Box  House  by  Second  Grade    ......       43 

20.  Detail  for  Paper  Weaving 44 

21.  Furniture  from  Wood  Blocks    ......       48 

22.  Furniture  from  Wood  Blocks    ......       48 

23.  Home  of  White  Cloud,  the  Pueblo  Girl     .         .         .         .51 

24.  Detail  of  Stairway .         .54 

25.  Box  House,  showing  Roof        .         ...         .         .         -55 

26.  Detail  of  Gable 56 

27.  Colonial  Kitchen       ........       c6 

28.  House  of  the  Three  Bears         ......       59 

29.  Cornstalk  House       ...         o         ....       60 

30.  A  Flour  Mill 62 

31.  Box  House  and  Stores      .         .  66 


Xll  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


32.  A  Village  Street .         .68 

33.  A  Grocery.     Fourth  Grade 70 

34.  A  Grocery.     Third  Grade 73 

35.  A  Dry  Goods  Store 75 

36.  Home  in  a  Hot  Country 76 

37.  Home  in  a  Cold  Country 76 

38.  A  Sand-table  Farm.     First  Grade 80 

39.  A  Sand-table  Farm.     Second  Grade          ....       80 

40.  Detail  of  Chicken  Fence 81 

41.  Detail  of  Paper  Tree 84 

42.  Overall  Boys'  Farm 86 

43.  An  Apple  Orchard 87 

44.  Robinson  Crusoe 89 

45.  Pueblo  Indian  Village 90 

46.  A  Home  in  Switzerland    .......       92 

47.  Two  Little  Knights  of  Kentucky 94 

48.  How  Cedric  became  a  Knight  .         .         .         .         .         .       94 

49.  A  Sugar  Camp -95 

50.  A  Western  Cattle  Ranch  .         .         .         .         .         .96 

51.  The  Story  of  Three  Little  Pigs 98 

52.  A  Japanese  Tea  Garden  .......       99 

53.  A  Coal  Mine .         .       99 

54.  A  Chariot  Race .102 

55.  A  Circus  Parade       ...  .                  .     103 

56.  Three-ply  Wooden  Animals      ...  .     104 

57.  Detail  for  Three-ply  Wooden  Animals  with  Movable  Parts     105 

58.  Notched  Rest  for  Animals 106 

59.  Balancing  Figures    .         .         .         .         .         .         •         .107 

60.  Some  Simple  Toys  ....  .108 

61.  Adjusting  Jumping-Jack  in  Frame    .  .         .         .     109 


PRIMARY    HANDWORK 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

IN  setting  forth  the  plan  and  purpose  of  this  little 
book  the  author  wishes  to  lay  equal  emphasis  on  its 
limitations.  The  outlines  and  suggestions  which  fol- 
low are  designed  for  the  use  of  grade  teachers  who 
have  had  little  or  no  training  in  handwork  processes 
but  who  appreciate  the  necessity  of  making  worthy 
use  of  the  child's  natural  activity  and  desire  to  do. 
The  outlines  are  arranged  with  reference  to  schools 
which  are  not  provided  with  special  equipment  and 
which  have  scant  funds  for  supplies.  The  projects 
require  only  such  materials  as  empty  goods  boxes,  and 
odds  and  ends  of  cloth  and  paper,  which  are  easily 
obtainable  in  any  community.  No  extra  time  is 
required  for  the  work,  and  it  may  be  successfully  car- 
ried out  by  any  teacher  who  is  willing  to  devote  a  little 
study  to  the  possibilities  of  things  near  at  hand. 

These  outlines  do  not  form  a  course  of  study  to  be 
followed  in  regular  order  nor  in  set  lessons  coming  at 
a  definite  time.  They  are,  rather,  a  series  of  sugges- 
tions to  be  used  wherever  and  whenever  they  will 
serve  a  worthy  purpose.  They  are  not  to  be  regarded 


2  •  X  1^  l  •  fPI&MkRY;  HANDWORK 

as  a  special  subject,  having  little  or  no  connection 
with  the  regular  class  work,  but  rather  as  an  illustra- 
tive method  of  teaching  the  regular  subject  matter 
whenever  the  teaching  can  be  done  more  effectively 
by  means  of  concrete  illustrations.  It  is  proposed  to 
make  greater  use  of  construction  as  a  medium  of  ex- 
pression, and  place  making  more  nearly  on  a  par  with 
talking,  writing,  and  drawing. 

Any  of  the  projects  outlined  may  be  modified  to 
suit  varying  conditions,  and  the  emphasis  placed  accord- 
ing to  the  needs  of  a  particular  class.  All  the  sugges- 
tions are  given  in  very  simple  form,  chiefly  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  first  grade,  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
easier  to  add  to  the  details  of  a  simple  problem  than 
to  simplify  one  which  is  complex. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  emphasize  the  training 
of  the  hand  or  the  development  of  technique  in  hand- 
work processes  to  the  extent  commonly  expected  of  a 
course  in  manual  arts,  though  considerable  dexterity 
in  the  use  of  tools  and  materials  will  undoubtedly  be 
developed  as  the  work  proceeds.  While  careless  work 
is  never  to  be  tolerated  in  construction  any  more  than 
it  would  be  tolerated  in  writing  or  drawing,  the  stand- 
ard is  to  be  only  such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  is 
possible  through  a  child's  unaided  efforts.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  provide  him  with  things  to  do  of  such  interest 
to  him  that  he  will  wish  to  do  his  best,  and  things  of 
such  a  nature  that  they  will  please  him  best  when 
they  are  well  done,  and  so  stimulate  a  genuine  desire 
for  good  work.  To  this  end  the  suggestions  relate  to 
things  of  immediate  value  and  use  to  the  children 


INTRODUCTION  3 

themselves,  rather  than  to  things  commonly  compre- 
hended in  a  list  of  articles  which  are  useful  from  the 
adult  point  of  view. 

The  work  is  to  be  kept  on  a  level  with  the  child's  ex- 
perience and  used  as  a  means  of  broadening  his  experi- 
ence and  lifting  it  to  a  higher  level.  It  must  also  be 
kept  on  the  level  of  his  constructive  ability  in  order  that 
he  may  do  things  by  himself,  and  develop  independence 
through  feeling  himself  master  of  his  tools.  Neither 
patterns  nor  definite  directions  are  provided  for  the 
details  of  the  projects  outlined,  for  the  reason  that  it 
is  desired  to  make  every  project  a  spontaneous  ex- 
pression of  the  child's  own  ideas.  To  this  end  the 
outline  serves  only  as  a  framework,  to  be  filled  in  as  the 
worker  desires.  The  ready-made  pattern  implies  dicta- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  mechanical  imitation 
and  repetition  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  —  a  process 
almost  fatal  to  spontaneous  effort.  While  it  is  possible 
through  a  method  of  dictation  to  secure  results  which 
seem,  at  first,  to  be  much  better  than  the  crude  con- 
structions which  children  are  able  to  work  out  for 
themselves,  it  is  only  a  superficial  advantage,  and  one 
gained  at  the  expense  of  the  child's  growth  in  power 
to  think  and  act  independently.  It  is  an  advantage 
closely  akin  to  the  parrotlike  recitation  of  the  pupil 
who  catches  a  few  glib  phrases  and  gives  them  back 
without  thought,  as  compared  with  the  recitation 
of  the  pupil  who  thinks  and  expresses  his  thoughts 
in  his  own  childish  language. 

These  outlines  are  intended  not  only  to  emphasize 
independence  in  self-expression,  but  also  to  foster  a 


4  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

social  spirit  through  community  effort  and  develop  a 
sense  of  responsibility  through  division  of  labor.  A 
child's  shortcomings  will  be  brought  home  to  him  much 
more  vividly  if  he  fails  to  contribute  some  essential  as- 
signed to  him  in  the  construction  of  a  cooperative  proj- 
ect, and  thereby  spoils  the  pleasure  of  the  whole  group, 
than  when  his  failure  affects  only  his  individual  effort 
in  a  group  of  duplicate  projects. 

These  outlines  are  intended  also  to  suggest  a  method 
of  opening  up  to  the  children,  in  an  attractive  way,  the 
great  field  of  industry.  Their  deep  interest  in  playing 
store  leads  easily  to  a  study  of  the  source,  use,  and  value 
of  various  forms  of  merchandise  and  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  various  trades  and  occupations.  Problems  of  this 
sort  are  fascinating  to  children  in  all  the  lower  grades, 
are  rich  in  valuable  subject  matter,  and  suggest  things 
to  do  which  are  both  interesting  and  worth  while.  With- 
out attempting  to  exhaust  any  phase  of  the  subject,  they 
awaken  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  industrial  world 
and  tend  to  stimulate  thoughtful  observation.  They  help 
to  give  the  children  correct  ideas  about  industrial  pro- 
cesses as  far  as  their  knowledge  goes,  and  to  create  a 
desire  for  further  knowledge.  This  general  information 
lays  a  good  foundation  for  later  and  more  serious  study 
of  the  industries  and  the  choice  of  a  vocation. 

These  outlines  are  offered  as  a  means  of  bridging  the 
gap  between  the  formal  methods  and  outgrown  courses 
of  study  still  in  use  and  the  richer  curriculum  and  more 
vital  methods  toward  which  we  are  working.  Much 
time  must  be  spent  in  study  and  experimentation  before 
a  satisfactory  reorganization  of  the  curriculum  can  be 


INTRODUCTION  5 

worked  out.  Without  waiting  until  this  work  shall  be 
wholly  completed,  it  is  possible  at  once  to  vitalize  the 
most  formal  course  of  study  through  the  use  of  freer 
methods,  which  permit  and  encourage  self-directed  ac- 
tivity on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  use  of  such  methods 
will  not  only  tend  to  create  a  deeper  interest  in  school 
work,  but  must  also  help  toward  the  great  problem  of 
reorganization,  by  throwing  into  stronger  relief  the 
strength  and  weakness  of  our  present  common  practice. 


CHAPTER  II 
PAPER  CUTTING   AND  POSTER  MAKING 

PAPER  and  scissors  form  a  fascinating  combination  to 
all  children,  and  offer  a  very  direct  means  of  self-expres- 
sion. In  the  language  of  a  small  boy  who  attempted  to 
tell  how  to  do  it,  "  You  just  think  about  something 
and  then  cut  out  your  think"  The  teacher  is  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  "  think  "  and  the  way  in  which  it  is 
expressed.  The  children  ar.e  interested  in  paper  cutting 
chiefly  from  the  pleasure  of  the  activity.  Beyond  the 
immediate  pleasure  in  the  process,  the  cuttings  are  valu- 
able only  as  they  indicate  the  clearness  of  the  child's 
ideas  and  measure  his  ability  to  express  them.  The 
process  is  educative  only  in  so  far  as  it  helps  the  small 
worker  to  "  see  with  his  mind's  eye  "  and  to  give  tangi- 
ble shape  to  what  he  thus  sees.  It  is  important,  there- 
fore, that  the  work  be  done  in  a  way  that  will  emphasize 
the  thinking  rather  than  the  finished  product. 

The  first  question  arising  is,  To  what  extent  shall  a 
pattern  be  used?  Shall  the  teacher  cut  out  the  object 
and  bid  the  class  follow  her  example  ?  Shall  she  display 
a  silhouette  or  outline  drawing  of  the  object  she  desires 
the  children  to  cut,  or  shall  they  work  without  any  exter- 
nal guide  to  justify  or  modify  the  mental  picture  ? .  Shall 
they  be  given  a  pattern  and  be  allowed  to  draw  around 
it? 

6 


PAPER    CUTTING   AND   POSTER    MAKING  7 

All  of  the  above  methods  are  used  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  Long  experience  seems  to  indicate  that  the  first 
cutting  of  any  object  should  be  unassisted  by  any  external 
representation  of  it  whatever,  in  order  that  the  attention 
of  each  child  may  be  focused  upon  his  own  mental  pic- 
ture of  the  object.  When  he  has  put  forth  his  best 


FIG.  i.  —  Story  of    Jack    Horner  on  poster  and  sand  table.     Snowflakes  in 
background.     First  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

effort  from  this  standpoint,  he  should  compare  his  cutting 
with  the  real  object  or  a  good  picture  of  it  and  be  led  to 
see  the  chief  defects  in  his  own  production  and  then 
allowed  to  try  again. 

For  example,  after  telling  the  story  of  Mother  Hubbard, 
the  children  may  be  interested  in  cutting  out  dogs.  No 
picture  or  other  guide  should  be  used  at  first,  since  every 


8 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


child  knows  something  about  dogs.  The  first  cuttings 
are  likely  to  be  very  poor,  partly  because  the  children 
have  not  sufficient  control  over  the  scissors  and  largely 
because  their  ideas  are  very  vague.  In  a  general  com- 
parison of  work  they  will  help  each  other  with  such  criti- 
cisms as,  "  This  dog's  head  is  too  big."  "  That  dog's  legs 
are  too  stiff."  They  are  then  ready  to  try  again.  Only 


ia^Mi\tauumafut 


ESKIMO  LAND 


B'lACKSMITM 


FIG.  2.  —  Paper  cutting.     Second  grade,  Columbia. 

when  they  have  reached  the  limit  of  their  power  to  see 
flaws  in  their  work  do  they  need  to  compare  it  with  the 
real  dog  or  its  picture.  Only  after  a  child  has  attempted 
to  express  his  idea  and  has  become  conscious  in  ever  so 
small  a  degree  of  the  imperfection  of  his  expression  will 
he  really  be  able  to  see  differences  between  the  real 
object  and  his  representation  of  it,  and  thereby  clarify 
his  mental  picture. 


PAPER    CUTTING   AND    POSTER    MAKING  9 

The  child's  imagination  is  so  strong  that  he  is  apt  to 
see  his  productions  not  as  they  are  but  as  he  means  them 
to  be,  and  he  is  unable  to  distinguish  between  the  orig- 
inal and  his  copy  of  it.  If  the  picture  or  silhouette  is 
presented  at  first,  his  work  becomes  to  a  large  extent  mere 
copying  rather  than  self-expression.  If  the  teacher  cuts 
out  a  dog  and  displays  it  as  a  sample,  the  class  will  be 
apt  to  see  that  piece  of  paper  only  and  not  a  real  dog. 
If  the  children  are  permitted  to  draw  the  outline  either 
freehand  or  around  a  pattern,  still  less  mental  effort  is 
required,  and  in  cutting  they  see  only  the  bit  of  line  just 
ahead  of  the  scissors  and  not  the  object  as  a  whole. 

Such  methods  (i.e.  the  use  of  outlines,  silhouettes, 
etc.)  will  produce  better  immediate  results.  It  will  be 
easier  to  distinguish  dogs  and  cats  from  cows  and  horses 
if  a  pattern  is  provided,  but  it  will  not  produce  stronger 
children.  Such  methods  only  defeat  the  chief  purpose 
of  the  work,  which  is  to  stimulate  the  mental  effort 
required  to  hold  the  mental  image  of  the  object  in  the 
focus  of  attention  during  the  time  required  to  reproduce 
it  in  the  material  form. 

It  is  also  often  asked  whether  the  children  shall  always 
cut  directly  and  without  modification  or  whether  they 
shall  be  permitted  to  trim  off  the  imperfections  of  their 
first  attempts.  While  any  rule  must  always  be  inter- 
preted in  the  light  of  immediate  circumstances,  it  is 
generally  best  to  cut  directly,  and  after  noting  the  defects, 
cut  again.  It  is  then  possible  to  compare  the  several 
attempts  and  see  if  improvement  has  been  made.  Atten- 
tion should  be  directed  to  the  most  glaring  defect  only, 
and  an  attempt  made  to  correct  it.  For  example,  if  the 


10  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

dog's  head  is  too  large,  do  not  trim  down,  but  cut  another 
dog  and  try  for  better  proportions.  Compare  the  second 
attempt  with  the  first,  to  measure  improvement.  Even 
little  children  can  be  taught  to  work  in  this  thoughtful 


FIG.  3.  —  Paper  cutting.     Second  grade. 

way,  looking  for  the  defects  in  their  own  work  and  making 
definite  attempts  to  correct  them.  To  this  end  much 
cutting  from  an  unlimited  supply  of  newspaper  or  scratch 
paper  will  accomplish  more  than  a  few  exercises  in  better 
paper  which  must  be  trimmed  and  worked  over  for  the 


PAPER    CUTTING   AND    POSTER    MAKING 


II 


sake  of  economy.  If  little  children  are  allowed  to  trim 
off,  they  are  apt,  in  the  pure  joy  of  cutting,  to  trim  too 
much  and  lose  the  idea  with  which  they  started  - —  a  pro- 
cess which  tends  to  vagueness  rather  than  clearness.  To 
prevent  this  it  is  often  helpful  to  preserve  both  pieces 
of  paper,  i.e.  the  cutting  and  the  hole.  (See  Fig.  4.) 
Paper  Tearing.  —  Paper  tearing  serves  many  of  the 
same  purposes  sought  in  cutting,  and  has  several  strong 


FIG.  4.  —  Paper  tearing. 

points  in  its  favor.  Working  directly  with  the  finger 
tips  tends  to  develop  a  desirable  dexterity  of  manipula- 
tion. The  nature  of  the  process  prevents  the  expression 
of  small  details  and  tends  to  emphasize  bold  outlines  and 
big  general  proportions.  Working  directly  with  the 
fingers  tends  also  to  prevent  a  weak  dependence  upon 
certain  tools  and  tends  to  develop  power  to  express  an 
idea  by  whatever  means  is  at  hand. 

Posters.  — The  term  "poster"  as  here  used  includes 


12  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

all    mounted  pictures  made  by  children,  such  as  cut- 
tings, drawings,  paintings,  and  scrap  pictures. 

A  poster  may  be  the  work  of  one  child  or  of  a  group. 
A  single  poster  may  tell  the  whole  story,  or  a  series  of 
posters  may  be  made  to  show  a  sequence  of  events.  A 
series  of  posters  may  be  bound  together  in  book  form. 
For  poster  making  single  sheets  of  paper,  medium  weight 
and  of  neutral  tone,  are  needed.  The  sheets  should  be 
of  uniform  size  for  individual  use  so  that  they  could  be 
bound  together  if  desired.  For  cooperative  work  and 
special  problems  larger  sheets  will  be  needed. 

SUGGESTED   PROBLEMS    FOR   PAPER    WORK 

Cutting  out  Pictures.  —  This  serves  well  for  first  effort 
with  scissors.  The  interest  in  the  picture  furnishes  a 
motive,  while  the  outline  serves  as  a  guide  and  allows  the 
attention  to  be  given  wholly  to  the  control  of  the  scissors. 

Free  cutting  of  single  objects  —  such  as  animals,  fruits, 
trees,  furniture,  utensils,  etc.  —  intensifies  and  clarifies 
mental  pictures  and  stimulates  observation  if  the  child 
is  led  to  express  his  own  ideas  first  and  then  to  compare 
his  expression  with  the  original  and  note  his  deficiencies. 
As  far  as  possible  choose  objects  with  strong  bold  out- 
lines for  the  first  attempts.  There  should  be  some 
marked  feature,  such  as  Bunny's  long  ears,  which  calls 
for  emphasis.  To  cut  a  circular  piece  of  paper  which 
might  be  an  apple  or  a  peach,  a  walnut  or  a  tomato,  will 
not  aid  much  in  clarifying  a  mental  picture,  while 
Bunny's  long  ears,  even  though  crudely  cut,  will  be  more 
deeply  impressed  on  the  child's  mind. 

Illustrations  for  Stories.  —  Single  Illustration.  —  After 


PAPER    CUTTING   AND    POSTER    MAKING  13 

a  story  has  been  read  aloud  and  the  characters  and 
events  freely  discussed  by  the  class,  each  child  may  be 
encouraged  to  represent  the  part  which  has  appealed  to 
him  —  i.e.  "  cut  what  he  wants  to  cut."  After  the  cut- 
tings are  mounted  they  will  probably  form  a  series  which 
will  tell  the  whole  story.  When  several  children  illus- 
trate the  same  feature,  it  offers  opportunity  for  com- 
parison and  judgment  as  to  which  ones  have  told  the 
story  most  effectively.  For  example,  in  the  story  of 
the  Three  Bears,  the  cuttings  may  show  the  three  bears 
in  three  relative  sizes,  the  three  chairs,  the  three  beds, 


12  13  **  V  15 


FIG.  5.  —  Free  cutting.     Third  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

the  table,  and  the  three  bowls  of  porridge.  (See  notes 
on  Criticism.) 

Series.  —  Let  each  child  select  the  two  or  three  most 
important  events  in  a  story  and  illustrate  these  in  a  single 
poster  or  series  of  posters. 

Community  Poster.  —  A  long  story  such  as  the  "  Old 
Woman  and  the  Silver  Sixpence  "  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  class  as  a  whole,  each  child  cutting  some  one  feature. 
This  requires  attention  to  relative  proportions  so  that 
the  parts  may  be  in  harmony  when  assembled.  Such 
posters  may  be  used  for  wall  decoration. 

Charts.  —  Poster  making  may  also  include  the  making 
of  charts  containing  samples  of  manufactured  articles  in 


14  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

various  stages  of  development.  For  example,  a  chart 
on  cotton  might  show  raw  cotton,  cord,  thread,  cloth  of 
various  sorts,  lace,  paper,  and  other  materials  made 
from  cotton.  Such  a  chart  might  also  include  pictures  of 
cotton  fields,  spinning  and  weaving  machinery,  and  other 
related  features. 

Materials.  — Too  much  can  scarcely  be  said  in  favor 
of  much  cutting  from  an  unlimited  supply  of  common 
wrapping  paper,  newspaper,  or  other  waste  paper,  in 
which  the  children  are  entirely  unhampered  by  such 
injunctions  as,  "  Be  careful  and  get  it  just  right  the  first 
time,  because  you  can't  have  another  paper  if  you  waste 
this  piece."  The  possible  danger  of  cultivating  waste- 
fulness is  less  serious  and  more  easily  overcome  than  the 
very  probable  danger  of  dwarfing  and  cramping  the  power 
of  expression.  Here,  if  anywhere,  the  rule  holds  good 
that  we  learn  to  do  by  doing,  and  abundant  practice  is 
essential  to  success. 

Black  silhouette  or  poster  paper  is  most  effective  when 
mounted,  but  is  too  expensive  for  general  use  in  large 
classes. 

Brown  kraft  paper  and  tailor's  pattern  paper  serve  well 
for  both  cuttings  and  mounts.  Both  of  these  papers 
may  be  had  by  the  roll  at  a  low  cost.  The  tailor's  paper 
comes  in  several  dull  colors,  which  make  good  mounts 
for  cuttings  from  white  scratch  paper  or  the  fine  print  of 
newspaper. 

Bogus  paper  makes  an  excellent  mount  and  is  very 
inexpensive. 

The  Pasting  Process.  —  To  a  large  number  of  teachers 
the  pasting  lesson  is  a  time  to  be  dreaded  and  its  results 


PAPER   CUTTING   AND   POSTER   MAKING  15 

a  cause  of  discouragement.  Especially  is  this  true  if  the 
class  is  large  and  the  teacher  attempts  to  have  all  the  class 
pasting  at  one  time.  In  many  phases  of  school  work  it  is 
so  much  easier  to  control  forty  or  fifty  children  if  they  all 
act  in  unison  that  we  are  prone  to  use  the  method  too 
often  and  apply  it  to  forms  of  work  much  better  managed 
by  groups.  The  process  of  teaching  little  folks  to  paste 
is  greatly  simplified  by  the  use  of  the  group  method. 


FIG.  6.  —  Free  cutting.     Fourth  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

If  the  room  affords  a  large  table  at  which  a  small  group 
may  work,  the  teacher  can  easily  supervise  the  work  of 
the  entire  group.  If  there  is  no  table,  the  teacher  can 
work  with  one  or  two  rows  at  a  time  or  have  very  small 
groups  come  to  her  desk.  The  secret  of  the  success  of 
the  group  method  lies  in  having  the  rest  of  the  class  busy 
with  some  occupation  sufficiently  interesting  to  prevent 
impatience  while  waiting  for  turns.  The  command  to 
"  fold  hands  and  sit  still  till  your  turn  comes  "  is  sure  to 
cause  trouble,  because  children  are  physically  unable  to 
obey  it. 


1 6  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

The  most  important  factor  in  successful  pasting  is  a 
liberal  supply  of  waste  paper.  Each  child  should  be 
supplied  with,  a  number  of  single  sheets  of  newspaper 
torn  to  convenient  size,  to  paste  on,  each  sheet  to  be 
discarded  as  soon  as  used.  This  decreases  the  danger  of 
untidy  work.  With  the  cutting  laid  upon  the  waste 
paper,  the  paste  may  be  spread  with  brush,  thin  wood,  or 
thick  paper,  well  out  over  the  edges.  As  soon  as  the 
pasted  cutting  is  lifted  the  waste  paper  should  be  folded 
over  to  cover  all  wet  paste  and  lessen  the  possibility  of 
accidents.  After  the  cutting  is  placed  upon  the  mount, 
a  clean  piece  of  waste  paper  should  be  laid  over  it  and 
rubbed  until  the  air  is  all  pressed  out  and  the  cutting 
adheres  firmly.  The  waste  paper  overlay  may  be  rubbed 
vigorously  without  harm,  whereas  a  light  touch  of  sticky 
fingers  directly  upon  the  cutting  will  leave  a  soiled  spot, 
if  it  does  not  tear  the  moist  paper.  If  children  are  care- 
fully taught  in  small  groups  to  follow  this  method  of 
pasting,  in  a  fairly  short  time  all  but  the  weakest  members 
of  the  class  will  be  able  to  paste  neatly  without  much 
supervision. 


CHAPTER   III 
BOOKLETS 

THE  making  of  booklets  forms  a  valuable  accompani- 
ment to  almost  every  phase  of  school  work.  Even  simple 
exercises,  when  put  into  book  form,  take  on  a  dignity 
otherwise  impossible  and  seem  more  worth  while.  It  is 
impossible  to  work  with  much  enthusiasm  and  care  on 
exercises  which  are  destined  only  for  the  wastebasket. 

The  chief  value  in  the  making  of  booklets  is  lost  when 
they  are  made  for  display  purposes  only.  Many  diffi- 
culties are  sure  to  arise  when  the  teacher,  for  the  sake  of 
her  own  reputation,  sets  an  arbitrary  standard  and  tries 
to  force  every  member  of  the  class  to  meet  it.  Because 
of  these  difficulties  many  teachers  dread  and  avoid  work 
of  this  sort,  but  the  trouble  lies  in  our  false  standards 
and  poor  methods  rather  than  in  the  process  itself. 
When  the  exhibit  idea  is  uppermost,  each  page  must  be 
examined  with  great  care,  done  over  again  and  again  if 
need  be,  until  the  standard  is  reached  or  the  patience  of 
both  teacher  and  pupil  exhausted.  In  such  a  case  the 
work  practically  ceases  to  be  the  child's  own.  Instead  of 
expressing  an  idea  of  his  own  in  his  own  way,  he  tries  to 
express  the  teacher's  idea  in  the  teacher's  way,  and  it  is 
not  surprising  that  he  fails  so  often. 

The  booklet  serves  its  best  purpose  when  it  combines 
c  17 


l8  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

both  value  and  need ;  that  is,  when  it  is  something 
which  seems  worth  while  to  the  pupil  and  when  he  feels 
responsible  for  its  success.  He  should  feel  something 
akin  to  the  responsibility  one  feels  in  writing  an  impor- 
tant letter ;  that  is,  that  it  must  be  right  the  first  time 
because  there  is  no  opportunity  to  try  again  and  that  he 
cannot  afford  to  do  less  than  his  best  because  wha-t  is 
done  will  stand. 

To  "  express  his  own  idea  in  his  own  way  "  does  not 
mean  that  his  work  is  to  be  undirected  or  that  poor 
results  are  to  be  accepted.  It  does  mean  that  when  an 
idea  and  a  means  of  expressing  it  have  been  suggested 
to  him,  he  shall  be  allowed  to  do  the  best  he  can  by  him- 
self, and  that  when  he  has  done  his  best,  it  shall  be 
accepted  even  though  imperfect.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  his  work  be  "  touched  up  "  by  the  teacher.  If  he 
is  not  asked  to  do  things  which  are  too  hard  for  him,  he 
will  not  make  many  serious  errors.  If  these  are  wisely 
pointed  out,  they  will  not  often  be  repeated.  If  his 
attention  is  held  to  one  or  two  important  features  at  a 
time,  each  effort  will  mean  some  gain. 

The  making  of  a  booklet  in  the  primary  grades  should 
really  consist  in  making  a  cover  to  preserve  pages  al- 
ready made  or  to  receive  pages  on  certain  topics  as 
they  are  finished.  The  making  of  an  animal  book,  for 
example,  might  be  a  continuous  process.  Whenever  a 
new  animal  is  studied  and  a  cutting  or  drawing  of  it 
made,  the  new  page  may  be  added  to  the  book. 

The  first  books  should  be  picture  books  only,  collec- 
tions of  cuttings,  drawings,  and  mounted  pictures. 
As  the  children  learn  to  write  they  may  add  first  the 


BOOKLETS  19 

• 

name  and  then  short  descriptions  of  the  pictures,  the 
development  proceeding  by  easy  stages  until  their  com- 
position work  takes  the  form  of  the  illustrated  story. 

Books  which  are  a  collection  of  single  sheets  are,  as  a 
rule,  most  satisfactory  in  the  primary  school.  The 
single  sheet  is  much  more  convenient  to  use,  and  there 
is  always  an  inspiration  in  beginning  with  a  fresh  sheet 
of  paper.  It  is  more  difficult  to  paste  cuttings  into  a 
book,  and  if  pages  are  spoiled,  the  book  is  spoiled.  If 
separate  sheets  are  used,  a  poor  one  may  be  done  over 
or  discarded  without  affecting  the  rest. 

The  making  of  booklets  and  posters  offers  an  ex- 
cellent opportunity  for  developing  artistic  appreciation. 
It  is  not  enough  for  the  teacher  to  provide  only  good 
colors  from  which  the  children  may  choose,  and  to  super- 
vise the  spacing  of  pictures  and  then  flatter  herself 
that  because  the  results  are  good  that  the  children  are 
developing  good  taste.  Unless  they  really  want  the 
good  things,  little  real  gain  has  been  made.  Unless 
they  see  some  reason  for  the  arrangement  of  a  page, 
other  than  that  the  teacher  wants  it  that  way,  little  has 
been  accomplished. 

The  first  attempts  will  show  little  or  no  idea  of  balance 
or  good  spacing.  The  early  color  combinations  are  apt 
to  be  crude.  If  the  best  things  they  do  are  praised  and 
their  attention  is  constantly  directed  to  the  good  points 
in  things  about  them,  they  will  begin  to  want  those 
things.  They  will  begin  gradually  to  feel  a  greater 
pleasure  in  a  well-balanced  page  than  in  one  on  which 
big  and  little  pictures  are  stuck  indiscriminately.  If 
they  are  given  all  possible  freedom  in  matters  of  choice, 


20  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

it  will  be  possible  to  measure  their  real  progress  and  to 
know  what  points  need  emphasis. 

The  more  accustomed  the  children  are  to  tasteful  sur- 
roundings, the  easier  will  be  their  progress,  but  whether 
they  come  from  tasteful  homes  or  the  reverse,  the  process 
is  the  same.  Real  progress  will  undoubtedly  be  slow, 
but  it  should  be  upon  a  sure  foundation. 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  BOOKLETS 

Stories.  —  Series  of  illustrations  either  cut  or  drawn 
for  any  of  the  stories  read  by  the  class. 

Animal  Book.  —  Cuttings  or  sketches  of  animals. 
The  name  and  short  statement  of  some  characteristic 
may  be  added  by  children  who  are  able  to  write.  Trees, 
flowers,  fruits,  etc.,  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

A.  B.C.  Book.  — A  page  for  each  letter  of  the  alphabet 
to  be  filled  with  pictures  and  names  of  objects  having 
the  same  initial  letter. 

House  Book.  —  A  page  for  each  room,  upon  which  may 
be  mounted  pictures  of  things  appropriate  to  the  room. 
Newspaper  advertisements  and  catalogs  furnish  abundant 
material  for  this  problem.  The  work  not  only  helps  the 
children  to  classify  present  knowledge,  but  offers  oppor- 
tunity for  judgment  as  to  arrangement  and  relative 
proportions. 

How  People  Live.  —  A  book  of  pictures  of  houses  in 
different  countries. 

Famous  Houses.  —  Pictures  of  famous  buildings  and 
homes  of  famous  people. 

What  we  Wear.  —  Pictures  showing  materials  from 
which  clothing  is  made,  the  methods  of  production  and 
manufacture, 


BOOKLETS  21 

What  we  Eat.  —  Vegetable  foods  may  be  grouped  as 
roots,  stalks,  leaves,  seeds,  etc.  Animal  foods  may  be 
classified  according  to  the  animal  from  which  they  are 
obtained  and  the  part  of  the  animal  from  which  they  are 
cut.  Suggestions  for  cooking  may  be  added. 

How  we  Travel.  —  Pictures  showing  vehicles  and  con- 
veyances of  all  sorts,  classified  as  ancient  and  modern, 
or  according  to  the  countries  in  which  they  are  used, 
or  the  motive  power,  as  horses,  electricity,  steam,  etc. 

In  connection  with  elementary  geography  and  his- 
tory, booklets  and  posters  may  be  made  up  from  pic- 
tures cut  from  discarded  papers,  catalogs,  and  magazines, 
as  well  as  original  drawings.  A  great  variety  of  topics 
may  be  profitably  illustrated  in  this  way.  As,  for  ex- 
ample, land  and  water  forms,  famous  mountains,  lakes, 
rivers,  etc.,  products  and  processes  of  cultivation  and 
manufacture,  famous  people,  costumes  and  customs  of 
other  times  and  places,  utensils  and  weapons  of  earlier 
times. 

Fastenings.  —  The  simplest  method  of  binding  single 
sheets  is  by  means  of  paper  fasteners  and  eyelets. 
Though  these  are  not  expensive,  some  schools  cannot 
afford  to  buy  them.  Cords  may  be  used  in  several  ways 
and  serve  as  part  of  the  decoration. 

The  Simple  Tie.  —  Punch  three  holes  in  the  margin, 
at  least  one  half  inch  from  the  edge  to  prevent  tearing 
out.  Insert  the  cord  in  the  middle  hole,  carry  through 
one  end  hole,  then  through  the  other  end  hole,  then 
back  through  the  middle  and  tie.  (See  Fig.  7.) 

Japanese  Sewing.  —  Punch  holes  at  regular  intervals, 
as  one  inch  apart.  Sew  through  first  hole  twice,  making 


22 


PRIMARY   HANDWORK 


a  loop  around  the  back,  —  repeat  the  process  until  a 
loop  has  been  made  for  each  hole,  —  carry  the  cord  in 


FIG.  7.  —  Pamphlet  sewing. 

and  out  through  the  holes  back  to  the  starting  point, 
filling  in  the  blank  places  and  making  a  continuous  line, 
and  tie  ends  together  with  a  small  knot.  (See  Fig.  8.) 


r 

FIG.  8.  —  Japanese  binding. 


BOOKLETS  23 

Decoration.  —  Only  the  simplest  decoration  should  be 
attempted.  A  plain  cover  of  good  color  tied  with  a 
cord  of  harmonious  color  will  have  elements  of  beauty 
without  further  decoration.  A  single  border  line  well 
placed  may  be  used  and  offers  opportunity  for  develop- 
ing a  nice  sense  of  proportion  by  studying  the  results 
to  see  which  borders  are  neither  too  near  the  edge  nor 
too  far  from  it. 

A  well-printed,  well-placed  title  is  often  the  most 
satisfactory  decoration.  Printing  should  be  introduced 
early,  and  the  children  encouraged  to  make  good  plain 
letters.  In  order  to  get  the  title  in  good  proportion 
and  well  placed,  it  is  helpful  to  cut  a  piece  of  paper  the 
desired  size  and  lay  it  on  the  cover,  moving  it  about  to 
see  where  it  looks  best.  Until  the  children  have  learned 
to  do  fairly  neat  work  it  is  often  helpful  to  print  the 
title  on  a  separate  piece  and  paste  it  in  place.  It  is 
discouraging  to  spoil  an  otherwise  good  cover  by  a  bad 
letter,  and  this  process  lessens  that  danger. 

Before  the  children  learn  to  print,  a  simple  border  or 
band  across  the  cover  may  take  the  place  of  the  title. 
The  border  may  be  drawn  in  crayons  or  be  free-hand 
cuttings. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  beauty 
of  simplicity  in  decoration.  Children  are  inclined  to 
think  beauty  means  fanciness  and  that  beauty  increases 
with  the  quantity  of  decoration.  It  is  necessary  to 
begin  early  to  develop  a  taste  for  good  design. 


CHAPTER  IV 
CRITICISM  AND   STANDARDS   OF  WORKMANSHIP 

Criticism.  —  An  important  feature  of  all  self-directed 
activity  is  the  ability  to  judge  one's  efforts  and  intelli- 
gently measure  one's  success.  This  ability  is  a  matter 
of  slow  growth  and  must  be  cultivated.  It  is  not  enough 
for  the  teacher  to  pass  judgment  upon  a  piece  of  work 
and  grade  its  quality.  The  worker  himself  must  learn 
to  find  his  own  mistakes  and  how  to  correct  them. 
Class  criticism  offers  the  best  means  of  developing  this 
power,  but  must  be  tactfully  conducted. 

Little  children  are  brutally  frank  in  expressing  their 
opinions  and  need  to  be  taught  how  to  be  truthful  and 
yet  not  unkind.  They  need  to  be  taught  what  to  look 
for  and  how  to  find  it,  and  how  to  compare  one  thing 
with  another  and  discover  why  one  pleases  and  another 
displeases.  The  first  essential  in  the  training  is  emphasis 
on  the  good  rather  than  the  bad.  It  is  a  gospel  of  "  do  " 
rather  than  of  "  don't."  The  earliest  efforts  of  the  class 
may  well  be  confined  to  comments  upon  the  features 
they  like  and,  if  possible,  the  reason  for  the  liking.  This 
will  forestall  any  tendency  to  call  undue  attention  to  the 
poor  efforts  of  weak  workers.  At  first  many  children 
will  scarcely  discriminate  between  their  admiration  for 
a  piece  of  work  and  their  love  for  the  worker  and  will  be 

24 


CRITICISM   AND   STANDARDS    OF   WORKMANSHIP        25 

apt  to  praise  the  work  of  their  special  friends.  This 
tendency  will  gradually  disappear  through  the  develop- 
ment of  a  real  basis  of  appreciation. 

The  second  essential  concerns  the  improvement  of 
the  things  which  are  not  good.  Criticism  which  merely 
points  out  what  is  bad  is  of  little  value.  Helpful  criticism 
must  point  out  what  is  good  and  why,  and  what  is  weak 
and  how  to  make  it  stronger.  If,  for  example,  the  class 
is  considering  the  success  of  their  efforts  to  illustrate 
the  story  of  the  Three  Bears,  they  should  be  encouraged 
to  make  such  comments  as,  "  John's  chairs  look  too 
small  for  his  table,"  "  Mary's  bowls  are  all  about  the 
same  size."  The  criticism  should  direct  the  thought 
to  its  possible  remedy.  It  is  generally  better  to  pass 
over  defects  for  which  no  immediate  remedy  can  be 
suggested.  . 

Standards  of  Workmanship.  —  The  standard  of  ex- 
cellence by  which  acceptable  work  is  measured  must 
always  vary  according  to  the  ability  of  the  class.  The 
best  the  child  can  do,  alone  and  unaided,  should  be  the 
only  standard  of  measurement,  and  his  best  efforts  should 
always  be  accepted,  no  matter  how  crude.  In  no  other 
way  can  real  growth  be  observed  and  genuine  progress 
made. 

In  schools  where  arbitrary  standards  are  set  either 
by  supervisors  or  by  the  rivalry  of  teachers,  the  tendency 
to  help  the  children  by  doing  part  of  the  work  for  them 
for  the  sake  of  the  apparent  results,  offers  the  teacher's 
most  serious  temptation  to  selfishness.  In  a  few  cases 
it  is  helpful  for  the  teacher  to  add  a  few  strokes  to  a 
drawing  or  adjust  some  detail  in  construction,  that  the 


26  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

child  may  see  the  value  of  certain  small  changes  in  the 
place  where  they  will  mean  most  to  him.  Such  work 
should  not  be  exhibited  as  an  example  of  the  child's 
accomplishment,  but  should  be  treated  as  practice  work. 
As  a  rule  the  teacher's  demonstration  should  be  made 
on  other  material  and  not  on  that  used  by  the  pupil. 
In  no  particular  are  primary  schools  open  to  greater 
criticism  than  in  the  too  common  habit  of  setting  ar- 
bitrary standards  of  excellence  and  attempting  to  force 
all  children  to  reach  them.  Such  standards  are  usually 
too  high  for  honest  attainment  and  tempt  or  force  the 
teacher  to  use  methods  which  cannot  be  defended  by 
any  sound  principle  of  pedagogy. 

Values  change  with  the  purpose  of  the  work.  A 
thing  is  well  made  when  it  serves  its  purpose  adequately. 
Toys  must  be  strong  enough  to  permit  handling.  Me- 
chanical toys  must  work.  Sewing  must  be  strong  as 
well  as  neat.  In  illustrative  problems,  in  which  effect 
is  the  chief  consideration,  technique  needs  little  emphasis, 
and  workmanship  may  be  of  a  temporary  character. 

Each  thing  made  should  establish  its  own  standard 
in  a  way  to  appeal  to  the  child's  common  sense. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   HOUSE   PROBLEM 

THE  making  of  a  playhouse  has  long  been  an  accepted 
feature  of  primary  work,  but  we  have  not  always  made 
it  yield  all  of  which  it  is  capable,  either  in  the  self-directed 
activity  of  the  children  or  in  correlated  subject  matter. 
It  has,  in  many  cases,  been  only  a  bit  of  recreation  from 
the  more  serious  work  of  the  school.  In  a  house  pre- 
pared by  the  janitor  or  older  pupils  the  children  have 
been  allowed  to  arrange  and  rearrange  ready-made 
furniture  contributed  from  their  playthings  at  home, 
but  little  creative  work  has  been  attempted.  In  other 
cases  an  elaborate  house,  carefully  planned  by  the 
teacher,  has  been  built  and  furnished  by  the  children, 
but,  because  of  the  detailed  planning,  the  children's 
part  in  it  became  merely  a  mechanical  following  of 
directions.  In  some  cases  relative  proportions  in  rooms 
and  furnishings  have  received  scant  attention ;  in  others, 
color  harmonies  have  been  all  but  ignored.  These 
varying  methods  of  carrying  out  the  house-building  idea 
are  not  without  value  and  may  often  be  justified  by 
local  conditions,  but  their  results  are  meager  compared 
with  the  possible  richness  of  the  problem. 

Playing  at  house  building  and  housekeeping  appeals 
to  an  interest  so  universal  that  children  of  all  times  and 

27 


28 


PRIMARY    HANDWORK 


THE   HOUSE    PROBLEM 


nations  yield  to  its  power.     It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
take  account  of  its  influence  in  their  development  and 


FIG.  10.  —  Medieval  castle.     Built  by  third  grade.     Franklin,  Indiana. 

An  example  of  elaborate  work  which  aroused  the  interest  of  pupils  and  patrons  and 
paved  the  way  for  freer  work  later. 

to  dignify  it  with  the  approval  of  the  school.  We 
must  refine  and  enrich  it  by  our  direction  and  suggestion 
without  robbing  it  of  its  simplicity  and  charm. 


30  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

In  the  suggestions  which  follow,  an  attempt  is  made 
to  utilize  this  natural  activity  of  children  in  an  occupa- 
tion which  appeals  to  them  as  worth  while.  At  the 
same  time  it  may  furnish  ample  opportunity  for  the 
general  development  and  effective  teaching  of  various 
phases  of  subject  matter  which  are  incident  to  the  oc- 
cupation, i.e.  number  in  connection  with  measurements, 
art  in  the  proportions  and  color  combinations,  language 
through  discussions  and  descriptions. 

The  work  is  kept  on  the  level  of  the  children's  ex- 
perience by  throwing  them  constantly  on  their  own 
responsibility  in  every  possible  detail,  the  teacher  never 
dictating  the  method  of  procedure  and  guiding  the  work 
with  as  few  suggestions  as  possible.  The  work,  being 
on  the  level  of  their  experience,  appeals  to  the  children 
as  very  real  and  worth  while.  It  is,  therefore,  intensely 
interesting,  and  they  work  without  urging. 

General  Plan.  —  A  house  may  be  constructed  from 
several  empty  goods  boxes,  each  box  forming  one  room 
of  the  house.  The  boxes  or  rooms  are  arranged  in  con- 
venient order,  but  are  not  fastened  together.  Adjoin- 
ing rooms  are  connected  by  doors  carefully  cut  in  both 
boxes  so  that  the  holes  match.  Windows  are  also 
sawed  out  where  needed.  The  walls  are  papered,  careful 
attention  being  given  to  color  schemes,  border  designs, 
and  relative  proportions  in  spacing.  Floors  are  provided 
with  suitable  coverings  —  woven  rugs,  mattings,  lino- 
leums, tiles,  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  room. 

Each  step  is  discussed  and  more  or  less  definitely 
outlined  before  the  actual  making  is  begun,  furnishing 
opportunity  for  oral  language  of  a  vital  sort.  Com- 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  31 

pleted  parts  are  examined  and  criticized,  furnishing 
further  opportunity  for  exercise  in  oral  language  while 
directing  attention  to  strong  and  weak  points  in  the 
work. 

The  materials  needed  are  easily  obtainable  and  in- 
expensive, consisting  chiefly  of  empty  boxes  and  odds 
and  ends  of  paper,  cloth,  and  yarn,  together  with  car- 
penters' scraps. 

The  tools  needed  are  few,  and  in  some  cases  may  be 
brought  from  home  by  the  children  for  a  few  days,  as 
needed.  The  necessary  time  is  found  by  making  the 
incidental  problems  serve  as  subject  matter  for  regular 
lessons.  Making  designs  for  tiling,  linoleum,  and  borders 
for  wall  paper,  planning  relative  proportions  for  doors, 
windows,  and  furnishings  will  supply  material  for  very 
practical  lessons  in  art.  The  problems  incident  to  the 
measurement  of  doors  and  windows,  tables  and  chairs, 
are  number  work  of  a  vital  sort  and  may  be  legitimately 
used  as  a  regular  number  lesson.  Discussions,  descrip- 
tions, and  definite  statements  of  plans  all  form  vital 
language  exercises  if  rightly  used. 

HOUSE    PLANS    IN    DETAIL 

Materials.  —  Empty  Store  Boxes  of  Soft  Wood.  —  Sizes 
may  vary,  but  where  several  are  grouped  for  a  house,  they 
should  be  near  enough  the  same  height  to  make  a  fairly 
level  ceiling.  About  10  X  12  X  18  in.  is  a  convenient 
size. 

Paper  for  Walls.  —  Scraps  of  ingrain  wall  papers 
may  be  had  from  dealers  for  little  or  nothing.  Cover 
paper  in  good  colors  may  be  purchased  by  the  sheet. 


32  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

Tailor's  paper  and  brown  wrapping  paper  serve  well, 
and  are  sold  by  the  roll  at  a  low  price. 

Pasteboard  (strawboard  or  juteboard)  may  be  used 
for  the  roof. 

Weaving  Materials.  —  Rugs  may  be  made  from  carpet 
rags,  rug  yarns,  rovings,  chenille,  or  jute;  towels  from 


FIG.  n.  —  House  arranged  on  a  table.      Front   view.      Built  by  first  grade. 
Columbia,  Missouri. 

crochet  cotton;    and  hammocks  from  macrame  cord  or 
carpet  warp. 

Wood  for  Furniture.  —  Bass,  white  pine,  poplar,  or 
other  soft  wood.  Box  tops,  if  of  soft  wood,  may  be 
made  to  serve  nearly  all  needs.  If  possible,  provide 
thin  wood  (about  }  in.  thick)  in  various  widths,  from 


THE   HOUSE   PROBLEM 


33 


one  inch  to  six  inches,  so  that  only  one  dimension 
need  be  measured.  Provide  also  thick  pieces  ij  in.  or 
2  in.  square  for  beds  and  chairs ;  J  in.  square  for  table 
legs. 

Nails  of  various  sizes,  chiefly  inch  brads,  are  needed. 

Tools.  —  The  tools  actually  necessary  are  few.  A 
class  can  get  along  with  one  saw  and  still  do  good  work, 
though  there  will  be  times  when  several  saws  will  facilitate 


FIG.  12. —  House  arranged  on  a  table.     Side  view. 
Columbia,  Missouri. 


Built  by  second  grade. 


progress.  Some  tools  are  needed  only  for  a  short  time 
and  sometimes  may  be  borrowed  from  the  homes.  It 
is  more  satisfactory  to  have  the  school  provided  with 
the  essential  tools  whenever  possible.  The  essential 
tools  include : 

Brace  and  auger  bit,  for  boring  holes  in  doors  and 
windows.  Needed  for  a  short  time  only. 

Compass  saw,  for  sawing  out  doors  and  windows. 


34  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

Crosscut  saw,  for  sawing  off  lumber.  School  should 
own  at  least  one. 

Miter  box,  for  holding  lumber  and  guiding  saw.  An 
old  one,  good  enough  for  children's  use,  will  frequently  be 


FIG.  13.  —  House  arranged  on  a  table.     Back  view.      Built  by  second  grade. 
Columbia,  Missouri. 

contributed  by  a  carpenter.  The  miter  box  should  be 
fastened  firmly  to  a  low  table  or  box. 

Hammers,  several  of  medium  size. 

Try-square,  a  very  valuable  tool  for  setting  right 
angles,  provided  the  teacher  and  pupils  know  how  to  use 
it. 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM 


35 


r 

i 
L 

r 


BatK 


Arrangement  of  Rooms.  —  The  sort  of  house  a  man 
can  build  is  governed  by  his  resources  and  his  site. 
Considering  the  number  of  boxes  as  resources  and  the 
table  or  shelf  on  which  they  are  to  stand  as  the  site,  the 
same  big  factors  which  enter  into  any  house-building 
problem  control  the  size  and  style  of  the  schoolroom 
playhouse.  What  sort  of 
house  is  desired?  What  sort 
of  house  can  be  built  from  the 
materials  at  hand?  What 
sort  of  house  can  be  built  in 
the  space  at  our  disposal? 

The  boxes  may  be  arranged 
on  a  shelf  with  all  the  open 
sides  toward  the  class,  as  in 
Fig.  9 .  This  economizes  space, 
and  all  of  the  rooms  are  visi- 
ble at  once.  A  two-story 
house  is  easily  built  on  this 
plan.  If  economy  of  space 
is  not  necessary,  the  boxes 
may  be  placed  on  a  table 
with  the  open  sides  of  the 
boxes  toward  the  edges  of  the  table,  as  in  Figs,  if, 
12,  and  13.  This  permits  a  more  artistic  grouping  of 
the  rooms.  (See  Fig.  14.) 

The  responsibility  in  grouping  the  boxes  should  be 
thrown  as  fully  as  possible  upon  the  children,  the  teacher 
merely  suggesting  where  necessary.  It  should  be  their 
house,  not  the  teacher's.  The  planning  should  not  be 
hurried  but  time  allowed  to  discuss  the  advantages  and 


living  roonv 

1 

I 

i 

FIG.  14.  —  House  plan. 


PRIMARY    HANDWORK 


disadvantages  of  different  plans  and  reach  an  agreement. 
In  trying  to  express  individual  opinions  convincingly 
their  ideas  will  become  clearer  —  a  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  children  which  is  much  more  important 
than  any  of  the  actual  details  of  the  house  itself. 

Whether  the  class  de- 
cides to  have  one  or 
two  bedrooms  in  the 
house  is  a  matter  of 
small  consequence. 
Whether  or  not  they 
are  growing  in  power 
to  appreciate  condi- 
tions and  make  an 
intelligent  decision  is 
a  matter  of  great 
consequence.  Their 
decisions  when  made 
may  not  always 
reach  the  high  stand- 
ard at  which  the 
teacher  is  aiming,  but 
if  they  have  really 
made  a  decision,  not 
merely  followed  the 
teacher's  suggestion, 
and  if  their  independent  selections  from  time  to  time 
show  a  higher  standard  of  appreciation  and  greater 
refinement  of  taste  in  ever  so  small  a  degree,  it  is 
evidence  of  genuine  growth  upon  a  sure  foundation. 
Doors  and  Windows.  —  The  size  and  arrangement  of 


FIG.  15.  —  Arrangement  of  windows. 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  37 

doors  and  windows  should  be  freely  discussed.  Various 
possible  arrangements  may  be  sketched  upon  the  black- 
board by  the  children.  For  example,  see  Fig.  15,  a 
and  b.  When  a  plan  is  adopted,  the  doors  and  windows 
should  be  carefully  drawn  on  the  outside  of  each  box, 
using  the  try-square  to  get  right  angles. 

Bore  holes  in  the  corners  of  the  doors  and  windows 
and  saw  out  with  keyhole  or  compass  saw.  In  order  to 
avoid  mistakes  it  is  well,  after  sawing  out  the  opening 
for  a  door  in  one  box,  to  place  the  two  boxes  together 
and  test  the  measurements  before  sawing  out  the  second 
opening.  A  mistake  of  this  sort,  however,  is  not  fatal, 
but  may  prove  the  most  effective  way  of  impressing 
the  workers  with  the  necessity  of  careful  measurement. 

Walls.  —  The  decoration  of  the  walls  will  furnish 
material  for  several  art  lessons.  The  discussion  should 
turn  first  to  the  suitability  of  different  styles  for  different 
purposes,  such  as  tiling  for  kitchen  and  bathroom  walls, 
light  papers  for  dark  rooms,  etc.  The  division  of  wall 
space  will  be  the  next  point  to  be  settled,  i.e.  the  height 
of  the  tiling  or  wainscot,  the  width  of  a  border,  or  the 
effect  of  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  in  breaking  up  wall 
space.  These  questions  may  be  discussed  as  far  as  the 
immediate  circumstances  and  the  development  of  the 
class  suggest. 

The  question  of  color  combinations  demands  special 
attention.  Unless  the  children  come  from  refined 
homes  their  ideas  of  color  will  be  very  crude,  and  if  con- 
tributions of  material  have  been  asked  for,  some  gaudy 
impossibilities  in  flowered  paper  are  apt  to  be  presented. 
If  so,  it  may  require  considerable  tact  on  the  part  of  the 


38  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

teacher  to  secure  a  satisfactory  selection  without  casting 
any  reflections  on  the  taste  of  somebody's  mother.  This 
difficulty  may  be  avoided  to  a  degree  by  providing  all 
the  materials  necessary.  It  is  not  enough,  however,  to 
cause  the  children  to  select  good  combinations  at  the 
teacher's  suggestion  while  in  their  hearts  they  are  longing 
for  the  gaudy  thing  she  has  frowned  upon.  It  is  better 
to  get  an  honest  expression  from  them,  even  though  it 
is  very  crude,  and  endeavor  to  educate  their  taste  to  a 
love  for  better  things,  so  that  each  time  they  choose 

the  choice  may  be  on  a 
higher  level  of  apprecia- 
tion. Immediate  results 
may  not  be  as  beautiful 
by  this  plan,  and  apparent 
progress  may  be  slow,  but 

FIG.  i6.-Detail  cf  hollow  square.         Qnly  by  SQme  such  ^thrt 

can  a  real  appreciation  be  developed  which  will  prevent 
the  return  to  the  crude  expression  as  soon  as  the 
teacher's  influence  is  withdrawn. 

Plain  papers  generally  give  the  most  pleasing  effects. 
Attractive  borders  may  be  made  by  cutting  simple 
units  and  repeating  them  at  intervals.  Almost  any 
motif  may  be  used  for  the  unit.  Animals,  birds,  trees, 
flowers,  ships,  etc.,  serve  well.  The  process  of  making 
the  border  should  be  a  serious  lesson  in  design.  A  good 
border  is  not  merely  the  repetition  of  a  pretty  figure. 
The  units  must  not  be  too  far  apart  nor  too  close  to- 
gether. The  shape  of  the  figure  used  must  be  such  that 
each  unit  seems  to  need  the  next  one.  Little  children 
will  usually  take  greatest  pleasure  in  working  from 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM 


39 


some  nature  motif,  as  flower  or  animal,  but  interesting 
work  can  be  done  with  simple  geometric  figures.  Take, 
for  example,  the  hollow  square.  Fold  a  square  of  paper 
on  both  diagonals .  (See  Fig.  16.)  Cut  on  dotted 


FIG.  17.  —  Borders  using  hollow  square. 

line.  Let  each  child  cut  several  and  lay  them  in  order 
for  a  border  or  mount  them  on  a  paper  of  different  color. 
Let  the  work  of  the  class  be  put  up  for  general  criticism. 
(See  notes  on  Criticism.)  Several  points  which  very 
small  children  are  able  to  appreciate  will  be  found  to 
enter  into  the  success  or  failure  of  their  efforts.  The 


40  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

hollow  square  itself  may  be  cut  too  wide  and  look  clumsy, 
or  cut  too  narrow  and  look  frail.  In  the  arrangement 
they  may  be  too  close  together  and  look  crowded,  or 
too  far  apart  and  look  scattered.  A  sensitiveness  to 
good  proportions  comes  naturally  to  only  a  few  people, 
but  nearly  all  are  capable  of  a  higher  degree  of  apprecia- 
tion if  their  attention  is  directed  to  the  essential  elements 
which  make  things  good  or  bad.  The  beginnings  of 
this  appreciation  lie  in  simple  things  which  are  easily 
understood  by  first-grade  children. 

Floors.  —  Many  of  the  considerations  which  enter  into 
the  selection  of  wall  decorations  are  of  equal  importance 
in  choosing  floor  coverings.  What  will  be  suitable  to 
the  purpose  of  each  room?  Why  do  we  use  linoleum 
in  the  kitchen  and  warm  rugs  in  the  bedroom?  Shall 
we  use  small  rugs  or  a  carpet?  What  colors  must  we 
have  on  the  floor  to  harmonize  with  the  colors  on  the 
wall?  What  designs  are  possible  and  desirable  for  the 
materials  we  have  to  use  ? 

Rug  Weaving  Materials.  —  The  market  offers  a  wide 
variety  of  materials  prepared  especially  for  school 
use.  Among  them  the  most  satisfactory  for  use  with 
small  workers  are  cotton  rovings,  loose  twisted  jute,  and 
cotton  chenille.  These,  especially  the  first  two,  are 
coarse  and  work  up  rapidly,  and  may  be  had  in  very 
desirable  colors.  Even  the  cheapest  of  them,  however, 
will  prove  an  expensive  item  for  the  school  with  limited 
funds,  and  ordinary  carpet  rags  may  be  made  to  serve 
every  purpose.  Often  these  will  be  contributed  by 
members  of  the  class.  By  a  careful  selection  and  com- 
bination of  colors  very  artistic  results  can  be  produced 


THE   HOUSE   PROBLEM  41 

which  are  in  some  respects  more  satisfactory  than  any 
obtained  from  the  so-called  weaving  materials,  and  have 
the  added  advantage  of  costing  practically  nothing. 

Looms.  —  The  market  also  offers  a  great  variety  of 
looms  for  school  use,  many  of  them  quite  simple  in  con- 
struction and  moderate  in  price.  In  schools  where 


FIG.  18.  —  Looms  and  samples  of  weaving. 

bench  work  is  taught,  the  making  of  a  loom  is  an  ex- 
cellent problem  either  for  the  weavers  themselves  or 
for  an  older  class  working  for  them.  If  the  looms  are 
made  by  the  little  weavers  themselves,  only  the  simplest 
possible  construction  should  be  used,  that  the  work  may 
be  completed  and  the  loom  put  to  use  before  the  worker 
loses  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  purpose  is  to  provide 
carpet  for  the  house.  Children  lose  interest  in  long- 


42  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

drawn-out  processes,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  better  to 
provide  them  with  the  necessary  tools  as  far  as  possible 
while  interest  in  the  house  building  is  keen.  Later,  if 
considerable  enthusiasm  has  been  aroused  for  weaving, 
individual  looms  may  be  made  for  home  use.  For  the 
school  with  scant  funds  a  very  satisfactory  loom  may  be 
improvised  by  driving  nails  one  fourth  inch  apart  in  the 
ends  of  a  shallow  box  of  convenient  size  and  stretching 
the  warp  threads  across  the  open  top. 

For  very  small  rugs  a  cardboard  loom  will  serve. 
This  may  be  made  by  cutting  notches  or  punching  holes 
along  opposite  edges  of  a  piece  of  cardboard  into  which 
the  warp  may  be  strung.  If  a  knitting  needle  is  in- 
serted at  each  side,  the  cardboard  will  be  stiffened  and 
the  edges  of  the  rug  kept  straight.  Weaving  needles 
may  be  purchased  from  supply  houses.  Wooden 
needles  cost  50  cents  per  dozen.  Sack  needles  serve  well 
for  small  rugs  and  may  be  had  at  any  hardware  store 
for  10  cents  per  dozen. 

Weaves.  —  For  first  weaving  the  plain  "  over  one, 
under  one  "  on  cotton  warp  with  rags  or  other  coarse 
woof  is  generally  best.  Variety  may  be  introduced  by 
weaving  a  stripe  or  border  of  a  different  tone  near  each 
end  of  the  rug.  Vertical  stripes  serve  well  as  another 
easy  method  of  variation  and  are  produced  by  using 
two  woof  threads  of  different  tones  and  weaving  first 
with  one  and  then  with  the  other.  This  weave  is  very 
attractive  as  the  body  of  the  rug  with  a  plain  border  at 
either  end. 

As  soon  as  the  children  have  mastered  the  plain  weave 
and  have  a  fairly  clear  idea  of  the  possibilities  in  design 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  43 

through  varying  the  colors  in  the  woof  only,  they  may 
be  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  the  "  gingham  weave  " 
and  allowed  to  experiment  with  the  variations  in  warp 
as  well  as  in  woof.  Cotton  rovings  is  an  excellent 
material  for  weaves  of  this  sort.  This  weave  may  also 


FIG.  19.  —  Box  house  by  second  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

be  used  with  raffia  to  make  matting  for  the  dining-room 
floor. 

Paper  mats  may  also  be  used  as  carpets  with  good 
effect.  Weaving  paper  strips  is  often  an  easier  process 
to  little  children  than  weaving  with  textiles,  except  where 
very  coarse  textile  materials  are  used.  For  paper  mats 
select  paper  of  suitable  color  and  cut  to  the  size  desired 


44 


PRIMARY    HANDWORK 


for  the  mat.  Fold  on  the  short  diameter.  Cut  slashes 
from  the  folded  edge,  not  less  than  one  half  inch  apart, 
to  within  one  inch  of  edge  of  the  paper  (See  Fig.  20), 
leaving  a  margin  on  all  four  sides  of  the  mat.  For 
weavers,  cut  from  paper  of  harmonious  tone,  strips  equal 
in  width  to  the  slashes  in  the  mat. 

Variations  of  the  simple  over  one,  under  one  weave 
add  interest  to  the  work  and  also  give  practice  in  number 

combinations  such  as  over 
one,  under  two,  etc.  Work 
of  this  sort  is  used  in  many 
schools  as  a  method  of  teach- 
ing number,  the  teacher  dic- 
tating the  combinations  while 
the  interest  of  the  children 
centers  in  the  new  pattern 
which  develops  under  their 
fingers.  While  such  work  has 
much  to  be  said  in  its  favor, 
it  is  open  to  criticism,  espe- 
cially in  the  matter  of  dictation.  All  the  children 
in  any  one  group  will  not  work  with  equal  speed. 
Some  will  undoubtedly  "  get  behind  "  and  others  will 
lose  time  while  waiting  for  the  slow  ones.  Accidents 
are  liable  to  happen  in  individual  cases. 

Many  of  these  undesirable  features  may  be  eliminated 
while  still  retaining  the  valuable  part  of  the  work  by 
writing  the  directions  on  the  board  instead  of  dictating 
them  to  the  children.  It  then  becomes  a  lesson  in 
reading  as  well  as  in  number.  Each  child  is  thrown 
more  completely  upon  his  own  responsibility  and  can 


FOLD 

FIG.   20.  —  Detail  of  paper  weav- 
ing. 


THE   HOUSE   PROBLEM  45 

proceed  as  rapidly  and  as  steadily  as  his  capacity  permits. 
His  rate  of  progress  will  often  be  a  fair  measure  of  his 
ability  for  independent  thought  and  action,  which  is  the 
real  measure  for  successful  teaching. 

As  the  hardest  feature  in  this  method  is  in  keeping 
the  right  line  and  not  repeating  or  omitting  any  direc- 
tion, a  social  spirit  may  be  encouraged  by  allowing  the 
children  to  work  in  groups  and  take  turns  in  keeping 
the  place  while  the  others  work.  In  one  first  grade  where 
this  plan  was  in  vogue  the  children  discovered  a  book 
on  the  teacher's  desk  which  contained  numerous  designs, 
many  of  them  much  more  intricate  than  she  would  have 
attempted  to  use  as  classwork.  Their  instinct  for  ex- 
ploration led  them  to  struggle  with  the  directions  until 
they  had  worked  out  some  designs  which  would  have 
proved  dismal  failures  had  they  been  attempted  as  class 
lessons.  In  this  instance  those  who  belonged  to  the 
persevering  group  were  happy  in  a  new-found  sense  of 
strength  and  independence,  while  the  others  had  ac- 
complished as  much  as  any  would  have  done  under  the 
dictation  method. 

Furniture.  — The  problem  of  furniture  for  the  school 
playhouse  has  been  discussed  in  numerous  publications, 
and  nearly  every  writer  on  the  subject  of  primary  hand- 
work offers  suggestions  on  this  topic.  The  suggestions 
include  a  range  in  materials  and  processes  from  very 
simple  foldings  in  paper  to  quite  complex  processes  in 
reeds  and  raffia  and  methodical  construction  in  wood. 

Among  the  various  materials  and  styles  in  common 
use,  folded  paper  furniture  has  the  advantage  of  being 
quickly  made.  The  process  is  of  sufficient  interest  to 


46  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

little  children  to  hold  their  attention,  and  in  order  to 
secure  the  desired  result  they  must  hear  the  directions 
intelligently  and  obey  them  promptly.  These  are  de- 
sirable habits  to  form.  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  for 
the  work  to  be  done  in  a  very  formal,  mechanical  way, 
in  which  the  children  merely  follow  directions,  often 
blindly,  without  any  clear  purpose  and  very  little 
thought.  Success  or  failure  is  due  largely  to  chance ; 
for,  if  by  accident  even  a  good  worker  "  loses  out  "  on  a 
direction,  his  work  is  at  a  standstill  until  special  help  is 
given.  He  is  unable  to  proceed  because  he  does  not 
know  what  to  do  next.  There  is  very  little  opportunity 
in  such  a  process  for  independent  thought  or  action. 
It  is  not  self-directed  activity. 

A  second  objection  to  paper  furniture  is  its  lack  of 
stability.  Paper  which  is  pliable  enough  to  fold  readily 
will  not  hold  its  own  weight  long  when  made  into  fur- 
niture, and  very  soon  becomes  wobbly.  To  overcome 
this  tendency  to  wobble,  heavier  papers  are  often  used 
and  new  complications  arise.  Heavy  papers  do  not 
fold  readily  without  scoring.  Scoring  demands  con- 
siderable accuracy  of  measurement  —  often  to  a  degree 
beyond  the  power  of  a  six-year-old.  The  stiff  papers, 
being  hard  pressed,  are  harder  to  paste,  and  neat  work 
is  often  an  impossibility,  unless  considerable  assistance  is 
given. 

It  is  possible  to  make  satisfactory  furniture  in  a  great 
variety  of  styles  from  stiff  paper,  and  the  processes  in- 
volve some  excellent  practice  in  measurement  and  design. 
The  processes  necessary  to  obtain  these  satisfactory 
results  are,  however,  beyond  the  ability  of  children  in 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  47 

the  lower  grades.  Even  fairly  satisfactory  results  are 
impossible  unless  an  undue  amount  of  assistance  is 
given  by  the  teacher.  In  actual  practice,  where  stiff 
paper  is  used  a  few  of  the  best  workers  in  the  class  are 
helped  to  make  the  few  pieces  needed  in  the  playhouse 
and  the  unhappy  failures  of  the  rest  of  the  class  are 
promptly  consigned  to  the  wastebasket. 

Very  pretty  furniture  may  be  made  from  reeds  and 
raffia,  but  the  processes  are  too  difficult  to  be  success- 
fully performed  by  small  children.  The  reeds  do  not 
lend  themselves  readily  to  constructions  small  enough 
to  suit  the  average  playhouse,  and  the  larger  pieces  are 
out  of  proportion  to  the  other  features  of  the  house. 

The  use  of  wood  overcomes  the  most  serious  of  the 
objections  to  be  made  to  other  materials,  besides  being 
the  material  most  commonly  used  in  "  real  "  furniture. 
Wooden  furniture  is  stable,  and  a  great  variety  of  pro- 
cesses in  construction  are  possible  without  introducing 
complications  which  prevent  independent  work  on  the 
part  of  the  little  people. 

The  processes  necessary  to  the  construction  of  very 
simple  yet  satisfactory  wooden  furniture  may  be  reduced 
to  measuring  one  dimension,  sawing  off,  and  nailing  on. 
Measuring  one  dimension  is  quite  within  the  powers  of 
six-year-olds.  Sawing  off  is  not  difficult  if  soft  lumber 
is  used,  and  it  becomes  very  simple  by  the  help  of  the 
miter  box.  Nailing  on  is  difficult  if  the  nails  must  be 
driven  into  the  edges  of  thin  boards,  but  if  thin  boards 
are  nailed  to  thick  boards,  nails  may  "  go  crooked  " 
without  serious  consequences,  and  the  process  becomes 
quite  easy.  These  processes  have  the  advantage  of 


48 


PRIMARY   HANDWORK 


FIG.  21.  —  Furniture  from  wood  blocks. 

being  particularly  fascinating  to  small  boys,  in  contrast 
to  the  girlish  character  of  many  forms  of  primary  hand- 
work. (See  Figs.  21  and  22.) 

Processes.  —  For  the  sake  of  convenience  and  clear- 
ness in  these  directions  it  will  be  assumed  that  the 
class  is  provided  with  pieces  of  wood  two  inches  square 


FIG.  22.  —  Furniture  from  wood  blocks. 


THE   HOUSE   PROBLEM  49 

which  will  be  referred  to  as  2  X  2.  Also  with  thin  wood 
in  a  variety  of  widths  from  i  in.  to  6  in.  Material  of 
other  dimensions  would  serve  the  purpose  equally  well, 
and  for  many  of  the  parts  odd  pieces  from  the  scrap  box 
will  answer  every  purpose.  The  directions  are  intended 
only  to  suggest  how  to  proceed,  and  it  is  left  to  the  teacher 
to  adapt  them  to  the  material  and  conditions  with  which 
she  works. 

(1)  To  make  a  chair. 

Use  2  X  2  for  seat  and  thin  wood  2  in.  wide  for  back. 
Children  should  measure  and  decide  how  much  to  saw 
off  from  strip  of  2  X  2  in  order  to  make  a  square  block 
or  cube  for  the  seat.  They  should  estimate  the  length 
of  the  back  of  the  chair,  then  measure  and  saw  off  the 
thin  wood  needed.  Nail  the  back  piece  to  the  cube  and 
finish  with  a  coat  of  water-color  paint  or  color  with 
crayon.  An  armchair  may  be  made  by  the  addition 
of  shorter  pieces  of  thin  wood  to  the  sides  of  the  chair. 

(2)  To  make  table  with  pedestal. 

Use  2  X  2  for  pedestal.  Use  thin  wood  6  in.  wide  for 
top.  Use  thin  wood  4  in.  wide  for  base.  Measure  and 
saw  off  3  in.  of  2X2  for  pedestal.  Measure  enough  of 
the  6  in.  wood  to  make  a  square  top  and  enough  of  the 
4  in.  wood  to  make  a  square  base.  Do  not  tell  the  chil- 
dren what  they  can  discover  for  themselves.  They 
should  decide  how  high  the  table  ought  to  be  and  how 
large  to  suit  the  size  of  the  room.  Nail  the  square 
pieces  to  the  two  ends  of  the  pedestal.  Finish  by  same 
method  used  for  chairs. 

(3)  For  ordinary  table. 

Use  thin  wood  for  top.     Use  J  X  |-  for  legs.     Measure 


50  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

and  saw  off  pieces  needed.  Measure  places  for  legs  about 
one  inch  from  corner  of  top  in  order  to  allow  an  overhang. 
Children  frequently  put  the  legs  flush  with  the  edge  of 
the  table,  which  gives  a  clumsy  appearance.  Nail 
through  the  top  with  a  comparatively  long  nail. 

(4)  To  make  a  double  bed. 

Use  wood  I  to  i  in.  thick  for  body.  Use  thin  wood 
of  corresponding  width  for  head  and  foot  boards.  Class 
or  individual  workers  should  decide  on  dimensions  for 
different  parts  and  height  of  body  of  bed  from  the  floor. 

(5)  For  single  bed. 

Proceed  as  for  double  bed,  using  narrow  pieces  of  wood, 
or  use  six  or  seven  inches  of  2  x  2  for  body  of  bed  and 
make  head  and  foot  boards  after  the  style  of  chair  back. 

(6)  Dressing  table. 

Decide  upon  dimensions  needed.  Use  2  X  2  for  body. 
Use  thin  wood  of  equal  width  for  back.  Use  tinfoil  for 
mirror.  Indicate  drawers  with  pencil  lines. 

(7)  Couch. 

Use  piece  of  2  X  2  of  desired  length  and  make  couch 
cover  of  appropriate  material,  or  add  back  and  arms  of 
thin  wood  to  piece  of  2  X  2  and  finish  to  match  other 
furniture. 

(8)  Piano. 

Use  wood  f  or  i  in.  thick  for  body.  Nail  on  piece 
|  X  |  for  keyboard.  Draw  keys  on  paper  and  paste  on 
keyboard. 

(9)  Kitchen  stove. 

Use  2  X  4  or  any  scrap  or  empty  box  of  appropriate 
size  and  shape.  Color  black  with  crayon.  Add  chalk 
marks  or  bits  of  tinfoil  to  indicate  doors  and  lids.  Make 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  5! 

hot-water  tank  of  paper.  Pieces  of  reed,  wire,  or  twigs 
covered  with  tinfoil  make  good  water  pipes.  Macaroni 
sticks  and  lemonade  straws  have  served  this  purpose. 

Clay  Furnishings.  —  For  such  articles  as  the  kitchen 
sink,  the  bathtub,  and  other  bathroom  fittings  clay  is 


FIG.  23.  —  Home  of  White  Cloud,  the  Pueblo  girl.     Second  grade.     Colum- 
bia, Missouri. 

a  satisfactory  material.  These  articles  may  be  modeled 
by  the  children,  in  as  good  an  imitation  of  the  real  fittings 
as  they  are  able  to  make.  Various  methods  may  be 
used  for  holding  the  kitchen  sink  and  the  bathroom  basin 
in  place,  and  it  is  much  better  for  the  children  to  evolve 
one  of  their  own  than  to  follow  the  teacher's  dictation 


52  PRIMARY    HANDWORK 

from  the  start.  If  they  meet  serious  difficulties,  a  sug- 
gestion from  her  may  help  clear  the  way.  Two  long 
nails  driven  into  the  wall  will  give  a  satisfactory  bracket 
on  which  the  sink  may  rest.  Two  short  nails  may  be 
driven  through  the  back  while  the  clay  is  moist  and 
may  serve  also  as  a  foundation  for  faucets.  The 
basin,  bathtub,  and  stool  may  each  be  built  solid  to  the 
floor. 

The  teakettle  and  other  stove  furniture  may  be 
modeled  in  clay.  Electric  light  bulbs  of  clay  sus- 
pended by  cords  from  the  ceiling  have  a  realistic  air. 
Paper  shades  of  appropriate  color  add  to  the  general 
effect. 

Miscellaneous  furnishings. 

Bedding.  —  Paper  or  cloth  may  be  used  for  bedding, 
as  circumstances  suggest.  If  interest  in  real  things  is 
strong,  the  making  of  the  sheets  and  pillow  cases  offers 
an  opportunity  for  some  practice  with  the  needle.  If 
time  is  limited,  paper  may  be  used. 

Curtains.  —  Curtains  also  may  be  made  from  either 
paper  or  regular  curtain  material.  If  paper  is  used,  it 
should  be  very  soft,  such  as  plain  Japanese  napkins. 
Scraps  of  plain  net  or  scrim  are  most  desirable.  Some 
child  is  apt  to  contribute  a  piece  of  large-patterned  lace 
curtain,  but  the  tactful  teacher  will  avoid  using  it  if 
possible,  and  direct  the  children's  thoughts  toward  a 
better  taste  in  draperies. 

Portieres  may  be  made  of  cloth,  of  knotted  cords,  or 
chenille. 

Couch  pillows  may  be  made  from  cloth  or  may  be 
woven  on  a  small  card, 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  53 

Towels  for  the  bathroom  may  be  woven  from  crochet 
cotton. 

The  fireplace  may  be  made  of  cardboard  marked  off 
and  colored  to  represent  brick.  A  shallow  box  may  be 
made  to  serve  the  purpose.  Cut  out  the  opening  for 
the  grate  and  lay  real  sticks  on  andirons  made  from  soft 
wire ;  or  draw  a  picture  of  blazing  fire  and  put  inside. 
The  fireplace  may  also  be  made  of  clay.  Pebbles  may 
be  pressed  into  the  clay  if  a  stone  fireplace  is  desired. 
If  clay  is  used,  several  small  nails  should  be  driven  into 
the  wall  before  the  fireplace  is  built  up,  to  hold  the  clay 
in  place  after  it  dries. 

Bookcases  may  be  made  of  cardboard,  using  a  box 
construction,  and  glued  to  the  wall.  Or  a  block  of  wood 
about  one  inch  thick  may  be  used.  In  either  case  mark 
off  the  shelves  and  books  with  pencil  lines,  and  color  the 
backs  of  the  books  with  crayon. 

The  Stairway.  —  In  a  two-story  house  the  hardest 
problem  will  usually  be  the  stairs.  Some  good  work  in 
number  may  be  done  while  finding  out  how  many  steps 
will  be  needed  and  where  the  stairway  must  begin  in 
order  to  reach  the  second  floor  in  comfort.  Even  quite 
small  children  can  deal  with  this  problem  if  presented  in 
a  simple  way.  For  example,  if  the  box  or  room  is  ten 
inches  high,  how  many  steps  i  in.  wide  and  i  in.  high  will 
be  needed,  and  how  far  out  into  the  room  will  they  come  ? 
The  children  can  work  out  the  plan  on  the  blackboard. 
Measurements  may  be  modified  to  suit  the  ability  of  the 
class  and  the  needs  of  the  room. 

The  variety  of  possible  constructions  in  building  the 
staircase  corresponds  to  the  varying  ability  of  classes. 


54  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

A  strip  of  paper  may  be  folded  back  and  forth  and  made 
to  serve  with  least  mature  classes.  This  paper  stair  will 
sag  unless  it  rests  on  a  board  or  piece  of  stiff  pasteboard. 
A  substantial  stairway  may  be  made  by  sawing  two  thin 
boards  for  supports,  as  in  Fig.  24,  and  nailing  on  steps 
of  thin  wood  or  cardboard.  There  is  usually  one  boy  in 
every  first  grade  who  is  capable  of  as  difficult  a  piece  of 
handwork  as  this.  He  is  apt,  also,  to  be  the  boy  who  takes 
least  interest  in  the  general  work  of  the  class,  and  often 

it  is  possible  to  arouse  him  to 
special  effort  through  some 
such  problem.  The  stairway 
may  be  made  of  heavy  card- 
board with  a  construction 
similar  to  that  just  described, 
but  this  requires  pasting  in- 
stead of  nailing  and  is  much 
more  difficult  for  little  chil- 


FIG.  24.  —  Detail  of  stairway. 

dren. 

The  Roof.  —  The  making  of  the  roof  is  another  part  of 
the  house  building  which  may  often  be  given  into  the 
special  care  of  the  two  or  three  over-age  pupils  who  need 
special  problems.  The  plan  which  they  evolve  from  their 
study  of  the  needs  of  the  case  will  usually  be  of  greater 
value  to  them,  even  though  it  may  not  be  the  best  that 
could  be  suggested. 

The  roof  maybe  made  of  wood  as  a  base,  with  either 
wood  or  cardboard  shingles  tacked  on  in  proper  fashion ; 
or  it  may  be  made  of  cardboard  with  the  shingles  merely 
indicated  by  lines  made  with  crayon.  If  the  wood  base 
is  used,  wood  gables  may  be  made  for  sides  or  ends  of 


THE   HOUSE    PROBLEM  55 

the  house.  To  these,  long  boards  may  be  nailed  to  form  a 
solid  roof.  Shingles  two  inches  long  by  about  one  inch 
wide  may  be  cut  from  cardboard  or  very  thin  wood  and 
tacked  to  the  boards.  The  children  should  be  spurred 
to  study  the  roofs  of  houses  and  find  out  how  the  shingles 


FIG.    25.  —  Box   house,    showing    roof.      Built   by    summer   class,   Teachers 
College,  New  York. 


are  arranged,  and  discover  for  themselves,  if  possible,  the 
secret  of  successful  shingling. 

A  cardboard  roof  is  in  many  ways  easier  to  build. 
In  a  house  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  25  two 
gables  are  used,  and  the  roof  slopes  to  front  and  back. 
The  framework  can  be  very  simply  made.  At  the  two 
gable  ends  place  uprights  made  of  two  pieces  of  wood 


PRIMARY   HANDWORK 


joined  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  T.  (See  Fig.  26.) 
These  should  be  nailed  to 
the  box.  A  ridgepole  may 
then  be  nailed  to  the 
upper  ends  of  the  up- 
rights. If  the  house  is 
not  large,  no  other  frame- 
work will  be  necessary. 
If  the  slope  of  the  roof 
is  long  enough  to  allow  the  cardboard  to  sag,  light 
strips  of  wood  extending  from  the  ridgepole  to  the 


FIG.  26.  —  Detail  of  gable. 


FIG.  27.  —  Colonial  kitchen.     Columbia,  Missouri. 


outer  edge  of  the  box  may  be  added.      If  a  single 
piece  of  cardboard    of  sufficient  size  is  available,   it 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  57 

may  be  scored1  and  bent  at  the  proper  place  and  laid 
over  the  ridgepole,  with  the  edges  extending  beyond  the 
box  to  form  the  eaves.  Or,  two  pieces  may  be  used,  one 
for  each  slope  of  the  roof,  each  piece  being  tacked  to  the 
ridgepole.  Chimneys  may  be  made  from  paper  and 
colored  to  represent  bricks  or  stone. 

The  outside  of  the  house  may  be  treated  in  several 
ways.  It  may  be  sided  after  the  manner  of  frame  houses 
by  tacking  on  strips  of  paper  or  cardboard  lapped  in  the 
proper  fashion.  It  may  be  covered  with  paper  marked 
in  horizontal  lines  to  represent  siding,  in  irregular  spaces 
to  represent  stone,  or  in  regular  spaces  to  represent  brick, 
and  finished  in  the  appropriate  color.  Or,  a  coat  of 
paint  or  stain  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  box. 

VARIATIONS    IN    HOUSE    PROBLEM 

A  playhouse  for  its  own  sake  is  a  justifiable  project  for 
primary  children  and  one  which  may  be  repeated  several 
times  without  exhausting  its  possibilities.  Each  time  it 
is  repeated  the  emphasis  will  fall  on  some  new  feature, 
and  the  children  will  wish  to  do  more  accurate  work. 

In  the  lowest  grades  very  simple  houses  of  one  or  two 
rooms  may  be  built  for  story-book  friends,  such  as  the 
"  Three  Bears  "  or  "  Little  Red  Riding  Hood,"  with 
only  such  furniture  as  the  story  suggests.  In  intermedi- 
ate grades  the  house  may  have  an  historical  motive  and 
illustrate  home  life  in  primitive  times  or  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, such  as  a  colonial  kitchen  in  New  England,  a  pioneer 
cabin  on  the  Western  prairies,  a  Dutch  home,  a  Japanese 

lln  scoring  cardboard  cut  about  halfway  through  the  board  on  the 
outside  of  the  fold. 


58  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

home,  etc.     In  upper  grades  it  may  become  a  serious 
study  in  house  decoration. 

As  the  motive  for  making  the  house  changes,  the  char- 
acter and  quality  of  its  furnishings  will  change.  The 
block  furniture  described  above  will  give  way  to  more 
accurate  models  in  either  wood  or  paper.  Some  excellent 
suggestions  for  paper  furniture  for  advanced  work  may 
be  found  in  the  Manual  Training  Magazine. 

As  skill  in  construction  increases,  a  wish  for  something 
more  realistic  than  the  box  construction  will  arise,  and  the 
elements  of  house  framing  will  be  studied  with  great 
eagerness. 

The  House  of  the  Three  Bears.  (See  Fig.  28.)  - 
This  house  was  made  early  in  the  year  by  a  class  of  first- 
grade  children.  The  walls  were  papered  in  plain  brown 
paper.  The  carpets  were  woven  mats  of  paper.  The 
chairs,  table,  and  beds  were  made  according  to  the  methods 
already  described  in  the  playhouse  outline.  The  stove 
and  the  doll  were  contributed.  The  bears  were  modeled 
in  clay.  The  children  played  with  the  house  and  its 
contents  throughout  the  year.  The  bears  were  broken 
and  made  over  many  times  —  a  process  which  not  only 
afforded  great  pleasure,  but  also  developed  considerable 
skill  in  modeling. 

Another  Bears'  House.  — This  house,  shown  in  Frontis- 
piece, was  made  in  the  spring,  near  the  end  of  the  school 
year,  by  a  class  of  first-grade  children  all  of  whom  were 
under  seven  and  many  of  whom  were  very  immature. 

The  story  of  the  Three  Bears  was  taken  up  after  Christ- 
mas, told  and  retold,  read,  and  dramatized  by  the  chil- 
dren. Teddy  bears  were  brought  to  school.  Many  bears 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  59 

were  modeled  in  clay,  each  child  making  the  set  of  three 
many  times. 

The  children  laid  off  spaces  on  the  table  for  individ- 


FIG.  28.  —  House  for  the  Three  Bears.     First  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

ual  Bears'  houses  and  made  furniture  for  these  as  their 
fancy  prompted.  The  furniture  was  made  of  wood  after 
the  general  style  described  above.  Later,  carpets  were 


6o 


PRIMARY   HANDWORK 


woven  for  these  individual  playhouses.  Each  carpet 
was  woven  to  a  given  dimension,  making  it  necessary  to 
use  the  rule.  This  was  their  introduction  to  the  rule  as 
a  tool  for  measuring.  Every  child  in  a  class  of  forty 
made  one  or  more  pieces  of  furniture  and  wove  one  or 


FIG.    29.  —  Cornstalk   house. 


Built    by    second-grade    class. 
Indiana. 


Franklin, 


more  small  carpets  from  rags.     Nearly  all  made  some 
bedding. 

Later,  four  boxes  were  secured  and  arranged  as  a 
house.  The  openings  for  doors  were  marked  off  during 
school  time,  but  were  sawed  out  by  a  few  children  who 
remained  during  the  noon  intermission.  This  is  the 


THE    HOUSE    PROBLEM  6 1 

only  part  of  the  work  which  was  not  done  during  regular 
class  time.  The  papering  was  done  by  two  or  three  of 
the  most  capable  children,  while  the  rest  were  deeply 
absorbed  in  weaving.  All  made  borders.  Certain 
borders  were  selected  for  the  house,  and  several  children 
worked  together  to  make  enough  of  the  same  pattern  for 
one  room.  Selections  were  then  made  from  the  carpets 
and  furniture  already  made  by  the  children. 

The  roof  was  made  chiefly  by  one  boy  who  "  knew  a 
good  way  to  make  it."  The  porches  were  also  indi- 
vidual projects  by  pupils  who  had  ideas  on  the  subject 
and  were  allowed  to  work  them  out. 

The  children  became  very  familiar  with  every  phase  of 
the  story  and  attacked  any  expression  of  it  with  the  feel- 
ing, "  That's  easy."  They  wrote  stories,  i.e.  sentences 
about  bears.  Each  child  at  the  close  of  the  year  could 
write  on  the  blackboard  a  story  of  two  or  more  sentences. 
They  made  pictures  of  bears  in  all  sorts  of  postures  with 
colored  crayon  and  from  free-hand  cuttings.  They 
modeled  the  bears  in  clay  over  and  over  again,  keeping 
up  a  large  family  in  spite  of  many  accidents. 

Cooperative  Building.  —  Figures  n,  12,  and  13  show 
three  rooms  of  a  four-room  house  built  by  the  first  and 
second  grades  working  together.  The  living  room  and  bed- 
room were  furnished  by  first-grade  children.  The  din- 
ing room,  kitchen,  and  bath  were  furnished  by  the 
second  grade.  Four  boxes  were  used.  (See  diagram,  page 
35,  Fig.  14.)  Each  room,  except  the  bath,  was  a  sep- 
arate box.  After  a  general  plan  had  been  agreed  upon 
by  the  teachers,  the  boxes  were  carried  to  the  several 
rooms  and  each  class  worked  quite  independently. 


62 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


THE   HOUSE   PROBLEM  63 

When  the  rooms  were  finished,  they  were  assembled  on 
a  table  in  the  hall  and  the  roof  put  on. 

The  Flour  Mill.  —  The  flour  mill,  shown  in  Fig.  30, 
was  built  in  connection  with  a  .study  of  the  general 
subject  of  milling  by  a  fourth-grade  class.  The  class 
visited  a  flour  mill.  They  were  shown  the  various  ma- 
chines, and  the  function  of  each  was  explained  to  them. 
They  made  hasty  sketches  of  the  machines  and  a  rough 
diagram  of  their  arrangement  on  the  floors.  They  got 
the  dimensions  of  the  floors  and  height  of  the  ceiling. 
An  empty  box  was  remodeled  to  approximate  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  building.  Small  representations  of  the  ma- 
chines were  made  and  placed  in  the  proper  relation  to 
each  other.  No  attempt  was  made  to  show  more  than 
the  external  proportions  in  the  small  representation.  The 
work  served  its  best  purpose  in  keeping  the  children  think- 
ing definitely  about  what  they  had  seen.  The  attempt  to 
express  their  thoughts  in  tangible  form  deepened  the 
mental  impression,  even  though  the  tangible  results 
were  crude  and  lacked  many  details. 

The  conveyer  being  of  special  interest,  two  boys 
worked  out  a  larger  model  which  illustrated  the  band- 
bucket  process.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  30,  at  the 
right  of  the  mill.  Small  cups  were  made  of  soft 
tin  and  fastened  to  a  leather  strap.  The  strap  was 
fastened  around  two  rods,  placed  one  above  the  other. 
The  lower  rod  was  turned  by  a  crank  fastened  on  the 
outside  of  the  box.  Two  or  three  brads  driven  into  the 
lower  rod  caught  into  holes  in  the  strap  and  prevented 
slipping.  The  machine  successfully  hoisted  grain  from 
the  lower  box  to  one  fastened  higher  up,  but  not  shown 


64  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

in  the  picture.  The  model  was  very  crude  in  its  work- 
manship, but  it  showed  the  ability  of  fourth-grade  boys 
to  successfully  apply  an  important  principle  in  mechanics, 
and  it  gave  opportunity  for  their  ingenuity  to  express 
itself.  The  work  was  done  with  such  tools  and  materials 
as  the  boys  could  provide  for  themselves,  and  without 
assistance  other  than  encouraging  suggestions  from  the 
teacher.  This  bit  of  construction  accompanied  a  broad 
study  of  the  subject  of  milling,  including  the  source 
and  character  of  the  raw  materials,  the  processes  in- 
volved, the  finished  products  and  their  value. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE   VILLAGE   STREET 

PLAYING  store  is  a  game  of  universal  interest.  Making 
a  play  store  is  a  fascinating  occupation.  These  are 
factors  which  cannot  be  overlooked  in  any  scheme  of 
education  which  seeks  to  make  use  of  the  natural 
activities  of  children. 

The  downtown  store  stands  to  the  children  as  the 
source  of  all  good  things  which  are  to  be  bought  with 
pennies.  It  is  usually  the  first  place  outside  the  home 
with  which  they  become  familiar,  and  its  processes  are 
sure  to  be  imitated  in  their  play.  In  their  play  they 
not  only  repeat  the  processes  of  buying  and  selling,  but 
try  to  reproduce  in  miniature  what  they  regard  as  the 
essential  features  of  the  real  store. 

If  they  are  allowed  to  play  this  fascinating  game  in 
school,  it  may,  by  the  teacher's  help,  become  at  once  more 
interesting  and  more  worth  while.  Curiosity  may  be 
aroused  through  questions  concerning  what  is  in  the  store, 
where  it  came  from,  how  it  got  there,  what  was  done  to 
make  it  usable,  how  it  is  measured,  and  what  it  is  worth. 
In  seeking  answers  to  these  questions,  the  fields  of  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  arithmetic  may  be  explored  as  exten- 
sively as  circumstances  warrant  and  a  whole  curriculum  is 

F  65 


66 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


THE   VILLAGE    STREET  67 

built  up  in  a  natural  way.  After  such  study,  stores  cease 
to  be  the  source  of  the  good  things  they  offer  for  sale. 
The  various  kinds  of  merchandise  take  on  a  new  interest 
when  the  purchaser  knows  something  of  their  history, 
and  a  new  value  when  he  knows  something  of  the  labor 
which  has  gone  into  their  manufacture. 

Being  a  subject  of  universal  interest,  it  may  be  adapted 
to  the  conditions  of  the  various  grades.  It  being  also 
impossible  to  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  the  subject  in 
any  single  presentation,  it  may  profitably  be  repeated 
with  a  change  of  emphasis  to  suit  the  development  of  the 
class.  For  example,  in  the  second  grade,  the  study  of  the 
street  is  chiefly  a  classification  of  the  various  commodi- 
ties which  are  essential  to  our  daily  life,  and  a  few  of  the 
main  facts  of  interest  concerning  their  origin.  Those  a 
little  older  are  interested  in  the  processes  of  manufacture 
and  the  geography  of  their  sources.  In  playing  store, 
weights  and  measures,  the  changing  of  money,  and  the 
making  of  bills  take  on  an  interest  impossible  in  the 
old-fashioned  method  of  presenting  these  phases  of 
arithmetic.  Discussions  and  narratives  supply  oral 
language  work,  and  descriptions,  letters,  and  notes  pro- 
vide material  for  written  exercises. 

The  class  may  be  divided  into  groups,  each  group  con- 
tributing one  store  to  the  street,  or  the  attention  of  the 
whole  class  may  be  centered  on  one  store  at  a  time,  as  the 
immediate  conditions  suggest.  If  the  former  method  is 
used,  as  each  store  is  finished  it  may  be  used  as  subject 
matter  for  the  entire  class,  while  the  important  facts 
concerning  it  are  considered.  The  first  permits  a  broader 
scope  ;  the  second  a  more  exhaustive  study.  In  either 


68 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


case  visits  to  the  real 
stores  studied  are  im- 
portant supplements  to 
the  work. 

General  Directions.  — 
Discuss  the  stores  on  a 
village  street.  Which 
are  most  important  ? 
Why?  Decide  how 
many  stores  the  class 
can  build,  and  choose 
those  most  necessary  to 
a  community. 

If  self-organized 
groups1  are  allowed  to 
choose  the  part  they  are 
to  work  out,  both  inter- 
est and  harmony  are 
promoted  and  leadership 
stimulated. 

Use  a  box  for  each 
store.  Each  group  is 
usually  able  to  provide 
its  own  box.  Paper  in- 
side of  box  with  clean 
paper,  or  put  on  a  coat 
of  fresh  paint.  Make 
appropriate  shelving  and 
counters  of  thin  wood. 

1  See  Scott's  "  Social  Educa- 
tion." 


THE   VILLAGE    STREET  69 

Stock  the  store  with  samples  of  appropriate  merchan- 
dise as  far  as  possible.  Supplement  with  the  best  repre- 
sentations the  children  can  make.  They  should  be  left 
to  work  out  the  problem  for  themselves  to  a  large  extent, 
the  teacher  giving  a  suggestion  only  when  they  show  a 
lack  of  ideas. 

Suggestions  for  Details  of  Representation.  —  Clay 
Modeling.  —  Clay  may  be  used  to  model  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, bottles  and  jugs  for  the  grocery ;  bread,  cake, 
and  pies  for  the  bakery ;  different  cuts  of  meat  for  the 
butcher  shop ;  horses  for  the  blacksmith  shop  and  for 
delivery  wagons.  Clay  representations  may  be  made 
very  realistic  by  coloring  with  crayon. 

Canned  Goods.  —  Paper  cylinders  on  which  labels  are 
drawn  before  pasting  serve  well  for  canned  goods. 
Cylindrical  blocks  may  be  cut  from  broom  sticks  or 
dowel  rods  and  wrapped  in  appropriately  labeled  covers. 

Cloth.  —  Rolls  of  various  kinds  of  cloth  should  be  col- 
lected for  th&  dry  goods  store.  Figures  may  be  cut 
from  fashion  plates  and  mounted  for  the  "  Ready  to 
Wear  "  department. 

Hats.  —  Hats  may  be  made  for  the  millinery  store 
from  any  of  the  materials  commonly  used.  This  is  a 
good  way  for  girls  to  develop  their  ingenuity  and  re- 
sourcefulness. 

The  Store  Front.  —  The  front  of  each  store  may  be  made 
of  either  wood  or  cardboard,  the  spaces  for  doors  and 
windows  being  left  open  that  the  merchandise  may  be 
conveniently  handled.  Brick  or  stone  fronts,  second- 
story  windows,  offices,  etc.,  may  all  be  indicated  as  artis- 
tically as  the  capacity  of  the  class  permits  by  the  use  of 


7O  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

colored  crayons.     The  sign  is  an  important  feature  and 
should  stimulate  an  interest  in  well-made  lettering. 

Additional  Projects.  —  In  addition  to  representations 
of  retail  shops,  various  industries,  such  as  the  carpenter 
shop,  blacksmith  shop,  flour  mill,  ice  plant,  and  other 
familiar  industries,  may  be  represented.  Cooperative 


FIG.  33.  —  A  grocery.     Fourth  grade. 

institutions,  such  as    the  post   office  and  fire   depart- 
ment, should  be  included  in  the  study. 

Excursions.  —  Wherever  possible,  the  plant  should  be 
visited  by  the  class.  Before  making  the  visit,  the  class 
should  discuss  what  they  expect  to  see,  and  go  prepared 
to  find  out  definite  things.  Each  child  should  have  at 
least  one  question  which  he  is  to  ask,  or  one  item  of 


THE   VILLAGE   STREET  71 

information  for  which  he  is  to  be  responsible  to  the  class 
on  the  return.  Often  the  visit  is  more  worth  while  to 
the  class  after  they  have  tried  to  make  a  representation 
from  what  they  already  know  and  from  what  they  can 
read  on  the  subject.  They  are  then  more  conscious  of 
their  needs  and  more  alive  to  the  important  elements 
than  when  they  are  merely  seeing  a  new  thing  which  is 
to  a  great  extent  foreign  to  their  experience.  If  they 
make  the  visit  first,  they  are  apt  to  feel  the  need  of 
another  when  they  attempt  to  work  out  their  represen- 
tation. If  they  make  a  representation  first,  they  are 
quite  sure  to  be  dissatisfied  with  it  and  want  to  make 
another  after  they  have  made  the  visit.  In  either  case 
their  consciousness  of  need  is  a  measure  of  growth. 

Correlation.  —  While  the  building  of  a  store  is  in 
progress  the  study  of  the  sources  and  processes  of  man- 
ufacture of  the  various  articles  of  merchandise  will  sup- 
ply valuable  subject  matter  in  several  fields. 

English.  —  Books  containing  information  on  the  sub- 
ject will  be  read  with  a  definite  purpose  and  more 
than  ordinary  interest.  Especially  if  the  group  method 
is  used,  will  the  members  of  a  group  be  proud  to  bring 
to  the  class  interesting  items  concerning  their  particular 
part  of  the  work.  These  narratives  and  descriptions 
may  be  made  excellent  practice  in  either  oral  or  written 
English  and  will  be  of  the  sort  Dewey  characterizes  as 
"  having  something  to  say  rather  than  having  to  say 
something." 

Geography.  —  This  study  may  also  enter  as  deeply 
into  the  field  of  geography  as  the  development  of  the 
class  warrants.  It  will  be  geography  of  a  vital  sort. 


72  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

How  these  things  are  brought  to  us  touches  the  field 
of  transportation,  creating  an  interest  in  ships  and 
railroad  trains,  pack  mules  and  express  wagons. 

History.  —  The  study  of  the  process  of  manufacture 
opens  up  the  field  of  industrial  history,  and  in  this,  as  in 
the  geography,  the  study  is  limited  only  by  the  capacity 
of  the  class. 

Number.  —  In  the  field  of  number  the  possibilities 
are  also  unlimited,  in  studying  the  weights  and  meas- 
ures used  for  different  commodities,  the  actual  prices 
paid  for  these  things,  and  the  usual  quantities  pur- 
chased. 

Playing  store  will  involve  the  making  of  bills,  the 
changing  of  money,  and  the  measuring  of  merchandise. 
Different  pupils  may  take  turns  acting  as  salesmen  or 
cashier.  The  common  practices  of  business  life  should 
be  followed  as  closely  as  possible,  only  in  this  case  each 
purchaser  should  make  out  his  own  bills.  Actual 
purchase  slips  may  be  brought  from  home  and  used  in 
number  lessons. 

An  inventory  of  the  stock  may  be  taken  and  will 
supply  excellent  practice  in  addition  and  multiplication. 
After  the  example  of  real  stores,  a  stock-taking  sale  at 
reduced  rates  may  be  advertised.  The  writer  answered 
such  an  advertisement  by  a  third  grade  and  asked  how 
much  could  be  purchased  for  one  dollar.  Pencils  were 
busy  at  once,  and  a  variety  of  combinations  suggested. 
One  pupil  was  quickly  called  to  account  by  his  mates  for 
offering  only  ninety-five  cents'  worth  of  merchandise  for 
the  dollar.  By  these  and  numerous  other  exercises 
which  will  suggest  themselves  to  lively  children  and  wide- 


THE   VILLAGE   STREET 


73 


awake  teachers  a  vast  amount  of  vital  subject  matter 
may  be  dealt  with  in  a  natural  way,  quite  on  the  level 
of  the  child's  experience  and  interest. 

Art.  —  The  art  side  also  may  receive  due  attention  in 
the  general  proportioning  and  arrangement  of  the  stores, 


FIG.  34.  —  A  grocery.     Third  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

in  the  modeling  of  certain  features  from  clay,  as  enu- 
merated above,  in  the  making  of  labels  for  boxes  and  cans, 
in  the  writing  of  signs  and  advertisements,  and  in  the 
color  combinations.  These  features  are  to  a  great  ex- 
tent incidental  to  other  problems  just  as  the  use  of  good 


74  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

taste  is  incidental  to  all  the  affairs  of  life  and  should 
receive  corresponding  emphasis. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure  32  shows  about  half  the  stores  built  by  one 
third-grade  class.  Some  of  the  subject  matter  drawn 
from  the  various  stories  was  as  follows :  in  connection 
with  the  grocery,  a  study  of  the  source  of  various  arti- 
cles of  food  with  oral  and  written  descriptions  of  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture ;  the  common  measures  used  in 
the  grocery,  and  ordinary  amounts  purchased. 

In  connection  with  the  meat  market,  the  names  of 
various  kinds  of  meat,  the  animals  fr6m  which  they  are 
obtained,  and  the  part  of  the  animal  which  furnishes 
certain  cuts ;  as,  for  example,  ham,  bacon,  chops. 
The  current  prices  and  approximate  quantity  needed 
for  a  meal  made  practical  number  work. 

The  bakery  called  for  an  investigation  of  the  processes 
of  bread  making  and  a  study  of  the  material  used.  In  all 
of  the  processes  the  teacher  had  opportunity  to  stress 
the  necessity  for  proper  sanitation. 

In  connection  with  the  dry  goods  store,  the  distin- 
guishing characteristics  of  cotton,  wool,  linen,  and  silk 
were  emphasized  and  illustrated  by  the  samples  col- 
lected for  the  store  and  by  the  clothing  worn  by  the  chil- 
dren. Common  problems  in  measuring  cloth  enlivened 
the  number  lessons. 

The  millinery  store  disclosed  considerable  ingenuity 
in  the  field  of  hat  manufacture,  and  a  lively  business  in 
doll  hats  was  carried  on  for  some  time. 


THE   VILLAGE   STREET 


75 


In  connection  with  the  post  office,  registered  letters, 
dead  letters,  money  orders,  rural  free  delivery,  etc.,  were 
discussed,  and  the  advantages  of  cooperation  touched 
upon. 


THE  GRAMD 


FIG.  35.  — A  dry  goods  store.     Third  grade. 

The  other  stores  of  the  village  street  offer  further 
opportunity  for  becoming  better  acquainted  with  the 
common  things  which  lie  close  at  hand  and  touch  our 
daily  lives. 


76 


PRIMARY   HANDWORK 


CHAPTER  VII 
SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  THEM 

A  SAND  table  should  be  considered  one  of  the  indis- 
pensable furnishings  of  every  schoolroom.  Its  pos- 
sibilities are  many  and  varied.  It  may  be  used  merely 
as  a  means  of  recreation  and  the  children  allowed  to  play 
in  the  sand,  digging  and  building  as  fancy  suggests.  Or 
it  may  be  used  as  the  foundation  for  elaborate  repre- 
sentations, carefully  planned  by  the  teacher,  laboriously 
worked  out  by  the  children,  and  extravagantly  admired 
by  the  parents  on  visitors'  day.  While  both  of  these 
uses  may  serve  worthy  ends  on  certain  occasions,  the 
most  valuable  function  of  the  sand  table  strikes  a  happy 
medium  between  the  two,  as  means  of  illustrating  and 
emphasizing  various  features  of  the  daily  lessons.  In 
this  capacity  the  laborious  efforts  of  the  show  problem 
on  the  one  hand  and  purposeless  play  of  the  other  are 
both  avoided.  In  this  capacity  the  work  on  the  sand 
table  goes  along  hand  in  hand  with  the  regular  work  in 
geography,  history,  language,  or  any  subject  in  which  it 
is  possible  through  an  illustration  to  teach  more  effec- 
tively. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  is  not  so  much  to  produce 
fine  representations  as  to  help  the  children  to  clarify 
and  strengthen  their  ideas  through  the  effort  to  express 

77 


78  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

them  in  concrete  form.  The  value  .lies  in  the  develop- 
ment which  comes  to  the  children  while  they  work.  The 
technique  of  processes  of  construction  is  of  secondary 
importance,  though  careless  work  ought  never  to  be 
permitted.  The  completed  project  has  little  value  after 
it  has  served  its  purpose  as  an  illustration  and  may  be 
quickly  destroyed  to  make  way  for  the  next  project. 
For  this  reason  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  general  effect 
rather  than  the  detail  of  construction.  The  work  should 
be  done  well  enough  to  serve  the  purpose,  but  time  should 
not  be  spent  on  unnecessary  details  which  do  not  add  to 
the  value  as  an  illustration.  In  most  cases  speed  is  an 
important  element.  The  project  should  be  completed 
while  the  subject  it  illustrates  is  under  discussion,  if  it  is 
to  be  of  most  service.  The  first  essential  is  that  the 
work  shall  be  done  wholly  by  the  children.  The  teacher 
may  by  skillful  questions  help  them  to  build  up  in  im- 
agination the  project  they  intend  to  work  out,  so  that 
they  may  work  with  a  definite  purpose.  She  may  some- 
times suggest  improved  methods  of  working  out  various 
features  when  the  improvements  will  add  to  the  value 
of  the  illustration,  but  she  should  seldom,  if  ever, 
plan  a,  project  definitely  or  dictate  the  method  of 
procedure. 

Not  least  among  the  possible  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
work  of  this  kind  is  the  development  of  resourcefulness. 
The  necessity  for  expressing  an  idea  in  concrete  form  with 
whatever  materials  are  at  hand  often  calls  for  consider- 
able ingenuity.  Ability  of  this  sort  will  show  itself  only 
when  the  children  are  expressing  their  ideas  with  utmost 
freedom  and  feel  the  responsibility  for  the  success  of  their 


SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   THEM         79 

work.  The  more  earnestly  the  children  try  to  express 
their  ideas,  the  greater  will  be  their  development.  The 
teacher  should  feel  that  she  is  hindering  the  growth  of 
the  children  and  defrauding  them  of  their  legitimate 
opportunity  for  development  when  she  allows  an  over- 
anxiety  for  tangible  and  showy  results  to  make  her  take 
the  responsibility  upon  herself. 

The  details  of  method  are  best  presented  through  a 
detailed  description  of  typical  illustrations  actually 
worked  out  in  the  classroom. 

A   SAND-TABLE   FARM  —  HOME   LIFE    IN   THE    COUNTRY 

The  study  of  home  life  as  a  general  subject  will  include 
"  our  home  "  and  the  homes  of  other  people  who  live 
under  different  conditions.  To  the  town  child  the  coun- 
try will  often  be  somewhat  familiar  and  -hold  the  second 
place  in  his  interest.  In  the  country  school  the  farm 
may  often  be  the  best  place  to  begin. 

Various  questions  will  arise  as  soon  as  it  is  decided 
to  make  a  sand-table  farm,  the  answers  to  which  will  be 
governed  by  the  habits  of  the  locality.  What  sort  of 
farm  shall  we  have?  Shall  we  raise  stock,  fruit,  corn, 
wheat,  vegetables,  or  a  little  of  everything  ?  What  shall 
we  need  to  plant  in  each  case,  and  in  what  proportion  ? 
How  much  pasture  land  shall  we  need?  What  build- 
ings ?  What  machinery  ? 

Fences.  —  As  soon  as  the  question  of  crops  and  the 
division  of  the  table  into  fields  is  settled,  the  problem  of 
fencing  presents  itself.  What  sort  of  fence  is  needed, 
wire,  boards,  pickets,  rails,  or  hedge?  How  far  apart 
shall  the  posts  be  set,  how  tall  should  they  be,  and  how 


8o 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


•C 


SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT   TO   DO    WITH   THEM 


8l 


many  will  be  needed  ?     How  many  boards  ?     How  wide  ? 
How  long  ?     How  many  wires  ? 

The  making  of  the  fencing  will  supply  material  for  one 
or  more  number  lessons.    Various  materials  may  be  used. 

Twigs  may  be  cut  to  given  lengths  and  set  in  concrete 
(clay)  posts. 

For  wire  fence,  cut 
posts  from  small 
wooden  sticks.  Drive 
small  tacks  in  each  post 
—  one  for  each  wire. 
Use  fine  spool  wire  or 
wire  raveled  from  fly 
screen.  Twist  wires 
once  around  each  tack, 
or  drive  the  tacks  in 
firmly  so  that  the  wire 
is  held  by  the  head  of 
the  tack.  This  is  not 
an  easy  fence  for  very 
little  children  to  make. 

To  make  board  fence. 
Cut    posts    required 


mm 


FOLD 


FOLD 


FIG.  40.  —  Detail  of  chicken  fence. 


length,  and  decide  upon  distance  between  posts.  Make 
boards  of  thin  strips  of  wood  or  of  pasteboard.  Nail  boards 
to  posts  with  tacks  or  small  brads.  This  is  a  very  easy 
fence  to  make  and  gives  some  good  exercise  in  measuring. 

Rail  fences  may  be  made  from  toothpicks  or  burnt 
matches. 

Picket  fence  for  the  dooryard  may  be  made  on  wooden 
foundation  with  cardboard  pickets. 


82  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

Hedge  fence  should  be  made  from  some  fine-leafed 
plant.  Cedar  twigs  serve  well. 

Chicken  fence  may  be  cut  from  paper  as  per  illustration. 
Fold  paper  several  times,  lengthwise.  Cut  across  the 
fold  as  indicated  by  arrows.  Stretch  lengthwise  as 
shown  in  Fig.  40,  a  and  b. 

Buildings.  —  The  class  should  decide  on  the  buildings 
needed.  Each  building  should  be  assigned  to  a  group  of 
two  or  three  workers.  Each  group  should  be  held 
responsible  for  its  contribution  and  should  work  out  its 
problem  with  as  little  help  as  possible.  If  the  children 
are  able  to  plan  a  barn  and  make  it,  even  though  it  is  a 
very  crude  affair,  more  has  been  accomplished  than  if  a 
very  cunning  structure  had  been  made  after  plans, 
dictated  and  closely  supervised  by  the  teacher. 

Wood  is  the  best  building  material  for  general  use. 

Pasteboard  serves  well,  but  it  is  less  substantial.  It 
is  also  harder  to  cut  and  paste  heavy  cardboard  than  it  is 
to  saw  and  nail  thin  wood. 

Clay  may  be  used  for  all  buildings  which  are  commonly 
made  of  concrete. 

Stock.  —  The  different  kinds  of  animals  needed  on  the 
farm  and  the  number  of  each  will  furnish  profitable  sub- 
ject matter  for  class  discussion.  The  animals  may  be 
modeled  from  clay.  While  the  animals  will  of  necessity 
be  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  acreage  of  the  farm, 
attention  should  be  directed  to  the  relative  proportions 
between  horses  and  hogs,  cattle  and  sheep.  Differences 
of  this  sort  do  not  trouble  little  people,  as  their  work  is 
sure  to  show.  The  point  should  be  stressed  only 
sufficiently  to  help  them  to  see  a  little  more  clearly 


SAND    TABLES   AND    WHAT    TO   DO    WITH   THEM         83 

and  express  their  ideas  a  little  more  adequately  each 
time  they  try.  The  accuracy  of  the  result  is  important 
only  as  an  index  that  the  children  are  steadily  develop- 
ing in  power  to  see  and  do,  and  gaining  self-reliance. 

The  Modeling  Process.  —  The  best  method  seems  to  be 
simply  to  begin,  and,  for  example,  model  as  good  a  horse 
as  possible ;  then  discuss  the  results,  note  a  few  serious 
defects,  and  try  again,  endeavoring  to  correct  them. 
Encourage  rapid  work  which  gives  the  general  propor- 
tions of  the  animal  in  the  rough.  Beginners  are  apt  to 
waste  time  in  a  purposeless  smoothing  of  the  clay,  in 
mere  tactual  enjoyment.  Discourage  the  tendency  to 
finish  the  details  of  a  horse's  head,  for  example,  before 
the  body  has  been  modeled.  Repeat  the  process  as 
often  as  time  and  the  interest  of  the  children  warrant, 
but  be  satisfied  if  the  children  are  doing  the  best  they 
can,  even  though  the  results  are  crude  and  not  so 
good  as  some  other  class  has  produced.  The  children 
should  always  feel  that  the  work  is  their  own.  For  this 
reason  the  teacher's  help  in  clay  modeling  should  be 
through  demonstration  rather  than  by  finishing  touches 
to  the  child's  work.  Imitation  is  a  strong  instinct  in  little 
children,  and  watching  the  teacher  model  a  better  horse 
than  he  can  make  will  help  a  child  to  improve  his  own. 
One  thing  to  be  especially  avoided  is  the  attempt  to 
bring  every  class  to  a  uniform  degree  of  excellence  ac- 
cording to  adult  standards.  Such  an  ideal  encourages 
the  giving  of  help  in  a  way  which  hinders  real  develop- 
ment though  it  may  produce  immediate  results. 

Trees.  — This  topic  will  call  out  a  discussion  of  the 
uses  of  trees ;  which  trees  are  shade  trees,  which  are  cul- 


84  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

tivated  for  their  fruit,  the  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  the  different  varieties,  and  the  ones  best  suited  to  this 
particular  farm. 

Twigs  from  the  real  tree  should  be  used  wherever 
possible.  In  other  cases  the  trees 
may  be  cut  from  paper.  If  a  good 
green  paper  is  not  at  hand,  use 
drawing  paper  and  color  with 
crayons.  A  realistic  effect  is  gained 
by  cutting  the  tree  from  folded 
paper.  (See  Fig.  41.)  Cut  three 
pieces  for  each  tree  and  paste 
together  at  the  fold,  then  open 
out.  Make  the  trunk  long  enough 
to  be  driven  an  inch  or  more  into 
the  sand. 

The  making  of  the  trees  will  fur- 
nish material  for  both  art  and 
nature  study  lessons.  As  far  as 
circumstances  permit  the  real  trees  FlG'  4I'~£eeetail  °f  paper 
should  be  studied,  giving  the  chil- 
dren first-hand  experience  whether  it  be  much  or  little. 
They  should  test  the  trees  they  cut  by  comparing  them 
with  real  trees  of  the  same  variety.  If  this  is  impossible, 
the  best  pictures  available  should  be  used.  (See  notes 
on  paper  cutting.) 

Crops.  —  When  the  various  parts  of  the  farm  are  about 
ready,  the  fields  may  be  sown.  The  sand  should  be 
made  very  wet  before  the  seed  is  put  in  and  sprinkled 
frequently  (twice  a  day),  as  the  top  dries  off  very  quickly. 
After  the  seeds  have  germinated  little  sprinkling  need  be 


SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT   TO   DO   WITH  THEM         85 

done,  as  the  roots  will  find  enough  moisture  in  the  wet 
sand  underneath,  and  it  is  desirable  to  retard  rather  than 
hasten  growth.  If  carefully  managed,  a  table  can  be 
kept  green  for  several  weeks. 

For  corn,  check  holes  well  into  the  sand  and  drop  one 
grain  into  each  hole.  See  that  rows  are  straight  and 
holes  evenly  spaced. 

Sow  wheat,  oats,  barley,  etc.,  very  thickly,  cover 
lightly  with  dry  sand,  and  sprinkle. 

Timothy  serves  well  for  meadow  and  lawn,  as  it  puts  up 
a  fine  blade.  Blue  grass  sends  up  a  fine  blade,  but  is  very 
slow  in  germination.  Clover  does  not  make  a  velvety 
lawn,  but  a  little  in  the  pasture  will  make  an  interesting 
contrast. 

Vegetables  may  be  planted  in  the  garden.  They  will 
not  develop  to  any  great  extent,  but  will  serve  to  empha- 
size different  habits  in  germination  ;  as,  for  example,  the 
contrast  between  beans  and  corn. 

Correlation.  —  The  opportunity  for  nature  study 
afforded  by  the  farm  problem  will  prove  one  of  its  most 
interesting  and  valuable  features  as  the  progress  in 
plant  growth  is  noted  from  day  to  day.  The  farm  prob- 
lem combines  well  with  both  language  and  art  work  in 
supplying  vital  material  for  both.  In  addition  to  the 
interesting  discussions  which  naturally  arise  concerning 
the  building  and  planting,  a  diary  may  be  kept  by  each 
child. 

Keeping  a  Diary.  —  The  date  of  planting  may  be 
noted  and  the  date  when  each  variety  of  seed  first  ap- 
pears above  ground.  With  the  larger  seeds,  as  corn  and 
beans,  a  seed  may  be  dug  up  each  day  and  examined,  so 


86  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

that  the  children  may  appreciate  what  is  going  on  below 
ground.  Drawings  may  be  made  of  the  seeds,  showing 
the  changes  in  appearance  from  day  to  day.  After  the 
seed  leaves  appear  the  daily  growth  may  be  measured 
and  noted  in  the  diary.  After  a  few  days  seeds  may  be 
dug  up  again  that  the  roots  may  be  examined.  At' 


FIG.  42.  —  An    Eskimo  village  and   The  Overall    Boys'  Farm.     First  grade. 
Columbia,  Missouri. 

various  stages  of  growth  different  varieties  of  seeds 
may  be  dug  up,  laid  upon  a  paper,  and  sketched  by  the 
children.  The  facts  they  note  may  be  stated  in  simple, 
well-formed  sentences,  either  oral  or  written  or  both. 

Art.  —  The  sketching  will  serve  well  as  the  day's  art 
lesson,  though  its  chief  value  is  in  helping  the  children 
to  see  clearly.  Their  efforts  will  be  crude  but  the  teacher 
should  constantly  keep  in  mind  that  the  chief7 aim  is  not 


SAND  TABLES   AND   WHAT  TO   DO   WITH  THEM         87 

to  obtain  fine  sketches.  Its  purpose  is  to  help  the  chil- 
dren to  a  better  appreciation  of  the  plant  through  the 
effort  put  forth  in  making  the  sketch.  The  technique  of 
the  drawing  should  be  emphasized  only  so  far  as  it  will 
help  them  express  better  what  they  see,  and  not  to  the 
point  where  they  attempt  to  copy  the  teacher's  strokes. 
The  teacher  should  be  satisfied  if  every  child  is  doing 
his  best  and  making  steady  progress,  even  though  that 


FIG.  43.  —  An  apple  orchard.     First  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

best  may  be  crude  and  not  up  to  the  standard  reached 
by  the  teacher  who  struggles  for  fine  results. 

English.  —  For  children  who  are  able  to  write  the 
diary  offers  a  natural  means  of  gaining  experience  in 
the  use  of  common  forms  of  punctuation ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  writing  of  dates  and  the  use  of  a  comma  in  a 
series,  as  well  as  the  punctuation  of  simple  statements, 
in  such  entries  as  the  following : 

April  15,  1912. 

We  planted  the  seeds  on  our  farm  to-day. 
We  planted  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  beans. 


88  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

In  all  work  of  this  sort  it  is  difficult  to  overestimate 
the  advantage  of  separate  sheets  of  paper  over  a  notebook 
with  sewed  leaves,  in  the  hands  of  the  children.  With 
the  fresh  sheet  always  comes  an  inspiration,  no  matter 
what  failures  have  gone  before.  Poor  pages  can  be  done 
over  when  necessary,  but  do  not  haunt  the  workers  with 
their  discouraging  suggestions,  as  in  the  use  of  a  note- 
book. The  leaves  may  be  gathered  together  into  a  bind- 
ing of  some  sort.  Even  covers  of  plain  brown  wrapping 
paper  can  be  made  artistic  with  a  simple  border  line  well 
placed  or  a  design  cut  from  a  paper  of  a  different  tone. 
Written  work  which  culminates  in  an  attractive  booklet, 
however  simple,  seems  more  worth  while  than  exercises 
written  into  a  commonplace  notebook  or  on  scratch 
paper  which  goes  to  the  wastebasket  soon  after  the 
mistakes  have  been  commented  on. 

Number.  —  The  farm  problem  also  supplies  abundant 
opportunity  for  gaining  experience  with  number.  In 
addition  to  the  actual  measurement  of  the  materials 
used  for  fences  and  buildings,  the  scope  may  be  widened, 
where  conditions  warrant,  to  include  estimates  and  cal- 
culations of  the  amount  of  the  material  used. 

For  example,  how  many  inches  or  feet  of  wire  will  be 
needed  to  make  a  three- wire  fence  of  given  length  ?  How 
large  a  piece  of  cardboard  will  be  needed  to  cut  boards 
one  fourth  or  one  half  inch  wide  for  a  four-board  fence 
fifteen  inches  long  ? 

These  estimates  may  be  translated,  as  far  as  the  Ml- 
dren  arc  able  to  appreciate  the  connection,  into  quantities 
and  values  of  the  same  material  in  real  problems  con- 
nected with  real  farms.  It  is  important,  however,  to  be 


SAND   TABLES    AND    WHAT   TO   DO    WITH   THEM         89 

careful  not  to  carry  work  of  this  sort  so  far  beyond  the 
experience  of  the  children  that  it  becomes  wholly  foreign 
and  abstract  to  them.  We  are  too  apt  to  forget  that  it  is 
experience  and  not  objects,  which  is  the  vital  factor  in 
concreteness. 

In  connection  with  the  nature  study  a  variety  of  num- 


FIG.  44.  —  Robinson  Crusoe.     Third  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

ber  exercises  grow  out  of  the  questions  which  the  situa- 
tion prompts.  As,  for  example,  in  connection  with  the 
corn  crop  :  How  many  seeds  were  planted  ?  In  how  many 
rows?  How  many  seeds  in  a  row?  How  many  came 
up  ?  How  many  failed  to  germinate  ?  How  many  more 
came  up  than  failed  ?  If  each  good  seed  should  produce 


QO  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

two  ears  of  corn,  how  many  would  we  have?     What 
would  they  be  worth  at  a  given  price  ?  etc. 

In  an  ungraded  school,  while  the  younger  children 
might  confine  their  efforts  to  counting  as  above,  the 
older  children  might  answer  the  same  questions  in  terms 
of  percentage  and  in  the  probable  quantities  on  a  real 
•farm.  The  stock  farm  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 


FIG.  45. —  Pueblo  Indian  village.     Second  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

How  many  cows?  How  much  milk  will  they  give? 
What  will  it  be  worth?  How  much  butter  would  it 
make?  What  will  it  cost  to  keep  the  cows?  What  is 
the  tarmer's  profit?  These  and  many  other  questions 
will  suggest  themselves  to  both  teacher  and  pupils,  once 
the  subject  is  opened  up.  They  will  be  practical  ques- 
tions in  so  far  as  they  touch  the  experience  of  the  children 
in  such  a  way  as  to  appeal  to  them  as  real  questions. 


SAND  TABLES  AND   WHAT  TO  DO   WITH  THEM         91 

Each  individual  teacher  must  decide  how  far  and  into 
what  field  it  is  worth  while  to  lead  any  particular  class. 

The  Sand  Table.  —  The  various  types  of  sand  tables 
range  all  the  way  from  the  hardwood,  zinc-lined  article, 
provided  with  a  drainpipe,  down  to  the  homemade 
structure  evolved  from  a  goods  box. 

The  quality  of  the  table  does  not  greatly  affect  the 
quality  of  the  work  to  be  done  on  it,  but  there  are  several 
points  which  affect  the  convenience  of  the  workers.  The 
height  of  the  table  should  allow  the  children  to  work 
comfortably-  when  standing  beside  it.  A  long,  narrow 
table  is  seldom  as  satisfactory  as  one  more  nearly  square, 
but  it  should  never  be  too  wide  for  the  children  to  reach 
the  center  easily.  Any  table  with  tight  joints  in  the 
top  and  four-  or  five-inch  boards  fitted  tightly  around  the 
edge  will  serve  the  purpose.  The  inside  of  the  box  should 
be  painted  to  prevent  warping  and  leaking.  An  "  ocean 
blue  "  is  a  good  color,  as  it  makes  a  good  background  for 
islands. 

If  no  table  is  available,  a  goods  box  may  be  turned  on 
its  side,  the  top  covered  with  oilcloth,  and  a  frame,  made 
from  the  cover  of  the  box,  fitted  around  the  edge.  The 
inside  of  the  box  may  be  used  as  a  closet  in  which  to  store 
tools  and  materials,  and  a  neat  appearance  given  to  the 
whole  by  a  curtain  of  denim  or  other  plain,  heavy  material. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   PROBLEMS 

One  of  the  most  valuable  uses  of  the  sand  table  is  in 
making  illustrations  for  stories,  historical  events,  and 
similar  topics  in  which  the  relations  between  people  and 
places  is  important.  No  definite  rules  can  be  laid  down 


Q2  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

for  working  out  such  illustrations.  The  conditions  under 
which  they  are  made,  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  work, 
the  importance  of  the  subject,  all  affect  both  the  nature 
and  the  quality  of  the  work.  Any  material  which  lends 
itself  to  the  purpose  should  be  called  into  service. 

The  method  of  procedure  is  best  set  forth  by  describ- 
ing several  problems  as  actually  worked  out  by  children. 


FIG.  46. —  A  home  in  Switzerland.     Second  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 

(i)    Story  of  Columbus  —  First  Grade. 

Materials  Used.  —  Paper  for  cutting  and  folding, 
twigs  for  forests,  acorns  for  tents,  large  piece  of  glass  for 
ocean. 

Details  of  Illustration.  —  The  piece  of  glass  was  im- 
bedded in  sand  in  the  middle  of  the  table ;  one  end  of  the 
table  represented  Spain,  the  other,  America.  The  repre- 
sentation of  Spain  included : 

"  Castles  in  Spain  "  being  large  houses  with  many  win- 


SAND    TABLES    AND    WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   THEM         93 

dows  in  which  the  king  and  queen  lived.     They  were 
cut  from  paper. 

Many  people,  cut  from  paper,  including  kings  and  queens 
and  the  friends  of  Mr.  Columbus  who  came  to  tell  him 
"  good-by."  The  kings  and  queens  were  distinguished 
by  royal  purple  robes  and  golden  crowns  and  neck- 
laces, produced  by  the  use  of  colored  crayon. 
The  three  ships  made  from  folded  paper.  In  one  of 

them  sat  Mr.  Columbus. 
Fishes,  of  paper,  inhabited  the  hollow  space  underneath 

the  glass. 

The  forest  primeval  was  shown  on  the  American  side  by 
green  twigs  of  trees  set  very  close  together.  On  pull- 
ing apart  the  leaves  and  peering  into  the  depths  of  this 
forest,  one  found  it  inhabited  by  bears  and  other  wild 
beasts,  also  cut  from  paper. 
The  Indians  lived  in  a  village  of  acorn  tents  set  up 

in  a  little  clearing  on  the  shore. 

Flags.  —  The  Spanish  region  was  identified  by  a  Spanish 
flag,  while  the  stars  and  stripes  waved  above  the  Indian 
village. 

Values.  —  The  project  being  on  the  level  of  the  chil- 
dren's experience,  they  worked  freely  and  with  intense 
interest.  The  characters  in  the  story  were  all  very  real 
to  them.  They  literally  swarmed  about  the  table  when- 
ever opportunity  was  given,  moving  the  figures  about  as 
they  told  the  story  over  and  over  again.  Mr.  Columbus 
sailed  across  the  sea  many  times.  Many  boats  were 
made  and  named  for  one  of  the  three,  according  to  the 
preference  of  the  maker.  They  peeped  into  the  forest 
and  shuddered  in  delightful  fear  "  lest  a  bear  get  me." 


94 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT  TO  DO   WITH   THEM         95 

They  made  and  remade  the  scene  as  new  ideas  suggested 
themselves  during  several  days  of  Columbus  week. 
Several  discrepancies  existed  which  are  mentioned  here 
because  they  troubled  some  overconscientious  visitors. 
The  stars  and  stripes  did  not  come  into  existence  until 
centuries  after  Columbus  died  and  therefore  never  waved 
over  the  Indian  village  which  he  found.  But  chronology 


FIG.  49.  —  A  sugar  camp.     Built  late  in  the  spring  by  a  third-grade  class. 
They  enjoyed  the  green  grass,  though  it  suggests  an  overlate  season. 

does  not  trouble  the  first  grader  very  much,  while  "  my 
country  "  and  "  my  flag  "  are  ideas  which  are  developing 
together.  And  when  he  is  singing,  "  Columbus  sailed 
across  the  sea,  To  find  a  land  for  you  and  me,"  the  red, 
white,  and  blue  forms  the  most  fitting  symbol  in  his  repre- 
sentation of  that  land.  The  wild  animals  which  infested 
the  sand-table  forest  are  not  all  mentioned  in  the  histories 
as  found  on  San  Salvador,  but  they  did  exist  in  the  child's 


96 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


idea  of  the  wild  country  which  the  white  men  found  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  children  having  truthfully 
expressed  their  ideas,  the  teacher  had  a  basis  from  which 
to  develop,  correct,  and  emphasize  such  points  as  were  of 
real  importance,  while  the  unimportant  features  would 
fade  out  for  lack  of  emphasis. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  supervisor's  visit  the  members 
of  the  class  vied  with  each  other  in  telling  the  story  and 
explaining  the  significance  of  the  various  illustrations. 


FIG.  50.  —  A  western  cattle  ranch. 

The  supervisor  expressed  a  wish  to  own  some  of  the 
cuttings,  whereupon,  at  a  hint  from  the  teacher,  the  class 
which  had  gathered  about  the  sand  table  scampered 
joyfully  (but  quietly)  back  to  their  seats.  Scissors  and 
paper  were  quickly  distributed,  and  in  about  five  minutes 
an  empty  shoe  box  was  required  to  hold  the  collection  of 
"  Mr.  Columbuses,"  kings  and  queens  in  royal  purple, 
gold  crowns,  and  necklaces,  ships,  fishes,  etc.,  that  were 
showered  upon  the  guest.  Needless  to  say  many  scraps 
of  paper  had  fallen  to  the  floor.  The  teacher  remarked 


SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT  TO  DO   WITH  THEM         97 

that  it  was  time  for  the  brownies  to  come.  Down  went 
all  the  heads  for  a  sleepy  time.  The  teacher  slipped 
about,  tapping  here  and  there  a  child,  who  quickly  began 
gathering  up  the  scraps  as  joyously  as  he  had  helped  to 
make  them. 

The  supervisor  bade  them  good-by,  with  a  wish  that  all 
children  might  begin  their  school  life  under  such  happy 
and  wholesome  influences. 

(2)  Story  of  Jack  Horner l  —  First  Grade.  —  As  the 
story  was  read  the  different  characters  were  subjects  for 
free  paper-cutting  exercises.  An  abundance  of  paper 
(scratch  paper  and  newspaper)  was  supplied,  and  each 
child  allowed  to  cut  each  figure  many  times,  very  quickly. 

The  story  was  also  dramatized  and  acted  out  over 
and  over  again.  Figure  i  shows  the  result  of  an  hour's 
work  in  assembling  the  various  characters  and  telling 
the  whole  story  on  the  sand  table  and  in  a  poster.  The 
different  figures  to  be  cut  were  assigned  to  or  chosen  by 
the  different  children,  the  teacher  taking  care  that  no 
characters  were  omitted.  Having  cut  figures  of  the 
various  characters  as  they  were  met  in  the  story,  all  were 
eager  to  reproduce  the  part  called  for,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
more  than  enough  cuttings  were  made  to  supply  both 
sand  table  and  poster  with  ample  material.  Two  groups 
of  children,  one  for  the  poster  and  one  for  the  sand  table, 
were  assigned  the  work  of  placing  the  figures.  The 
teacher  superintended  both  projects,  giving  a  few  sug- 
gestions as  needed,  but  throwing  the  responsibility  upon 
the  children  as  much  as  possible. 

This  problem  was  worked  out  by  the  same  class  which 

1  See  Riverside  Primer. 


90  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

made  the  Columbus  illustration  just  described.  The 
Jack  Horner  story  was  illustrated  in  the  spring,  after 
much  work  of  this  sort  had  been  done.  The  quality  of 
the  cuttings  showed  an  interesting  improvement  over 
the  cuttings  made  for  the  Columbus  story,  which  came 
during  the  third  week  of  the  school  year. 

(3)    Story  of  Three  Little  Pigs.  —  This  is  a  long  story, 
and  three  weeks  were  occupied  in  reading  it  and  dramatiz- 


•  — ' 

FIG.  51. — The  story  of  Three  Little  Pigs.    First  grade.     Columbia,  Missouri. 


ing  it.  During  this  time  there  were  frequent  discussions 
about  how  it  was  to  be  worked  out  on  the  sand  table. 
Contributions  in  great  variety  were  brought  in :  straw 
for  the  straw  house,  twigs  for  the  house  of  sticks,  bags  of 
brick  dust  to  make  a  roadway  different  from  the  sand, 
rose  hips  to  be  tied  to  a  small  branch  to  represent  the 
apple  tree,  and  various  other  articles. 

The  houses  were  built  as  suggested  by  the  pictures  in 
the  reader.     The  pig  and  wolf  were  modeled  in  clay, 


SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT   TO  DO   WITH   THEM         99 


100  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

each  being  shown  in  the  several  different  positions 
described  in  the  story.  Over  and  over  a  little  clay  pig 
rolled  down  the  hill  in  a  paper  churn  and  frightened  a 
clay  wolf.  One  group,  not  having  wherewithal  to  build 
a  brick  house,  used  a  wooden  one  made  by  another  group. 
Another  class  made  the  brick  house  out  of  blocks,  and 
built  in  a  fireplace  with  its  kettle  ready  to  hold  the  hot 
water  whenever  the  wolf  should  start  for  the  chimney. 
(See  Fig.  51.) 

(4)  Japanese  Tea  Garden.  —  A  third-grade  class  used 
the  sand  table  to  illustrate  what  they  had  gleaned  from 
reading  several  stories  and  descriptions  of  life  in  Japan, 
in  connection  with  elementary  geography.     The  sand- 
table  representation  included  a  tiny  bridge  across  a  small 
stream  of  "  real  "  water.     The  "  real  river  "  was  secured 
by  ingenious  use  of  a  leaking  tin  can  which  was  hidden 
behind  a  clump  of  trees  (twigs).     A  thin  layer  of  cement 
in  the  bed  of  the  river  kept  the  water  from  sinking  into 
the  sand.     A  shallow  pan  imbedded  in  the  sand  formed 
a  lake  into  which  the  river  poured  its  waters.     (See 

Fig.  52.) 

(5)  A  Coal  Mine.  —  The  sand   table   shown  in  Fig. 
53  was  worked  out  by  a  fourth-grade  class  in  connection 
with  the  geography  of  the  western  states.     Descriptions 
and  pictures  were  studied  with  great  earnestness  to  find 
out  how  to  fix  it,  and  the   children  made  it  as  they 
thought  it  ought  to  be.     The  actual  making  occupied 
very  little  time,  the  various  parts  being  contributed  by 
different  pupils. 

Problems  of  this  sort  develop  leadership.     There  is 
usually  one  whose  ideas  take  definite  shape  promptly 


SAND   TABLES   AND   WHAT/^Q  ,£> 

and  whose  suggestions  are  willingly  followed  by  his 
group.  If  there  is  one  pupil  in  the  class  whose  ability 
to  lead  is  so  strong  that  the  others  are  overshadowed,  it 
is  sometimes  well  to  let  .the  work  be  done  by  small  groups 
who  use  the  table  turn  about.  This  plan  stimulates  a 
wholesome  rivalry  and  discourages  dawdling. 

(6)  Stories.  —  Illustrations  for  two  stories  are  shown 
on  page  94.  In  the  first  (Fig.  47)  part  of  the  class  made 
a  representation  on  the  sand  table  while  the  rest  pre- 
pared a  poster  from  paper  cuttings.  In  the  second 
(Fig.  48)  empty  shoe  boxes  were  used  in  making  the 
castle.  Very  little  time  was  spent  on  either  project. 


FIG.  54. — A  chariot  race.     Second  grade.     Pasadena,  California. 

CHAPTER  VIII 
ANIMALS  AND   TOYS 

THE  circus  and  the  zoological  garden  are  always  centers 
of  interest  to  little  children  and  may  be  used  to  great 
advantage  to  furnish  the  point  of  departure  in  the  study 
of  animal  life.  Making  the  animals  in  some  form  crystal- 
lizes the  interest  in  the  animals,  rep  resented,  and  awakens 
interest  in  their  habits  and  home. 

The  handwork  may  be  used  as  an  illustrative  factor 
connected  with  geography  and  nature  study,  or  the 
making  of  the  circus  maybe  the  starting  point,  and  in- 
cidentally furnish  subject  matter  in  several  fields.  For 
example,  geography  and  nature  study  grow  out  of  the 
search  for  facts  concerning  the  animals  themselves,  i.e. 
size,  color,  food,  home,  value,  etc.  The  desire  for  such 

102 


ANIMALS  AND   TOYS 


103 


information  gives  purpose  to  reading.  Oral  and  written 
descriptions  supply  subject  matter  for  practice  in  Eng- 
lish. Reducing  the  actual  proportions  of  animals  to  a 
definite  scale  and  problems  relating  to  their  commercial 
value  make  practical  use  of  the  knowledge  of  number. 
Art  enters  into  the  making  of  free-hand  sketches,  cuttings, 
and  patterns  for  wooden  models. 


FIG.  55.  —  A  circus  parade. 

A  good  circus  or  "  zoo  "  may  be  worked  out  in  a 
variety  of  materials.  Paper,  cardboard,  clay,  and  wood 
all  serve  well. 

To  get  the  best  value  from  the  problem  it  should  be 
as  free  as  possible  from  copy  work.  The  children  should 
consult  the  best  sources  of  information  at  their  disposal, 
which  may  range  all  the  way  from  ordinary  picture  books 
to  natural  history  and  encyclopedia  descriptions.  They 
should  find  out,  unaided,  as  much  as  possible  concerning 


104 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


the  animal  in  question:  his  size,  color,  food,  home, 
values,  etc.,  —  the  teacher  supplementing  with  interest- 
ing and  necessary  items  not  at  the  disposal  of  the  class. 
Free-hand  cuttings  and  pencil  sketches  should  be 
compared  with  the  best  pictures  obtainable  and  the  real 
animal  whenever  possible.  Such  patterns  as  are  needed 
should  be  made  by  the  children  themselves.  Ready- 
made  patterns  will  produce  better  proportioned  animals, 
but  more  dependent,  less  observant  children  also. 

METHODS    IN    DETAIL 

Realistic  Animals  in  Three-ply  Wood.  —  Secure  neces- 
sary items  of  measurement  and  decide  upon  scale. 
One  inch  for  each  foot  is  best  for  younger  children. 

Draw  rectangle  proportioned  to  the  extreme  length 
and  height  of  the  animal.  Draw  into  the  rectangle  a 


FIG.  56.  —  Three-ply  wooden  animals. 


ANIMALS   AND   TOYS 


105 


profile  sketch  of  the  animal,  being  careful  that  it  comes 
to  the  line  on  each  side.  All  four  feet  must  touch  the 
base  line.  Considerable  practice  may  be  needed  before 
a  good  sketch  can  be  drawn.  The  animal  may  be  rep- 
resented as  standing,  walking,  or  running,  but  must  be 
drawn  in  profile. 

Cut  out  the  sketch  and  make  by  it  three  patterns: 
one  of  the  head,  body, 
and  tail ;  one  of  the 
body  and  right  legs; 
one  of  the  body  and 
left  legs.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  get  good 
lines  at  shoulder  and 
rump.  (See  Fig.  56.) 

Lay  the  pattern  on 
the  wood  so  that  the 
grain  runs  lengthwise 
of  the  legs  and  other 
frail  parts  and  draw 
outline  carefully.  Use  basswood  one  fourth  inch  thick, 
or  other  soft  wood. 

Saw  out  the  parts  with  a  coping  saw.  Be  careful  in 
sawing  to  keep  the  blade  in  a  vertical  position  in  order 
that  the  edges  may  be  true. 

Nail  or  glue  the  parts  together.  If  the  animal  does 
not  stand  perfectly,  rub  the  feet  on  a  piece  of  sandpaper. 
Use  water  color  or  crayon  to  give  proper  color. 

Three-ply  Animals  with  Movable  Parts.  — To  make  the 
head  movable,  saw  the  part  from  the  body  on  a  curved 
line,  as  shown  in  Fig.  57.  Fasten  with  a  single  nail 


FIG.  57.  —  Detail  of  three-ply  animals  with 
movable  parts. 


IO6  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

through  the  shoulder.  The  curved  line  must  be  a  part 
of  a  circle  and  the  nail  must  be  at  the  center.  The  edges 
should  be  smooth  to  allow  easy  action.  The  tail  may 
be  adjusted  by  a  similar  plan.  The  parts  may  be  made 
to  move  automatically  by  suspending  a  weight  on  cords 
which  are  attached  to  the  movable  parts,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  57.  If  the  weight  is  to  be  used,  cut  off  the  body 
part  on  the  double  dotted  line  to  allow  room  for  the  cords 
to  swing. 

A  figure  of  this  sort  must  be  fastened  on  a  pedestal 
or  platform  which  will  extend  over  the  edge  of  the  table. 
A  slot  must  be  cut  in  the  pedestal  wide  enough  to  allow 
the  cords  to  swing  freely.  (See  Fig.  56.)  The  pedestal 
may  be  a  long  board  or  piece  of  heavy  cardboard  which 
can  be  tacked  to  the  table  or  held  firm  by  a  clamp,  or  it 
may  be  a  thin  board  fastened  to  a  U-shaped  block  which 
is  held  firm  on  the  edge  of  the  table  by  a  wedge. 

Cardboard  and  Paper  Animals  that  Stand.  —  For 
younger  children  who  cannot  handle  the  saw  easily 
cardboard  or  stiff  paper  may  be  used. 

To  make  the  animal  stand  the  feet  may  be  tacked 
to  a  small  piece  of  wood  about  one  inch  square  on  the 

end  and  as  long  as  needed, 
or  a  cardboard  brace,  such 
as  is  used  on  easels,  may  be 
glued  to  the  back.  A  realis- 

tic  effect   is  glven  if    the    ani~ 

mal    is    cut    with    two    legs 

and  the  brace  made  to  represent  the  other  two,  or  a 
piece  of  cardboard  cut  as  in  Fig.  58  may  be  used  as  a 
brace,  the  body  of  the  animal  fitting  into  the  notch. 


ANIMALS   AND   TOYS  107 

Clay  makes  an  excellent  medium,  but  it  requires  more 
skill  in  clay  than  in  wood  to  get  an  equally  good  effect. 
Clay  animals  should  be  modeled  with  a  pedestal,  and  the 
separations  between  the  two  forelegs  and  the  two  hind 
legs  merely  indicated.  If  each  leg  is  modeled  separately, 
the  figure  is  likely  to  be  frail. 


FIG.  59.  —  Balancing  figures. 

Balancing  Figures.  —  Design  such  figures  as  a  pranc- 
ing horse  or  dancing  bear  and  saw  from  a  single  piece 
of  wood.  A  little  below  the  center  of  the  figure  insert  a 
curved  wire,  on  the  other  end  of  which  is  a  ball  of  clay 
or  other  weight.  •  The  wire  must  be  fastened  firmly  so 
that  it  cannot  turn.  Adjust  so  that  the  figure  balances. 

Figures  of  people  in  foreign  costumes,  children  running 


io8 


PRIMARY  HANDWORK 


and  jumping,  as  well  as  all  sorts  of  animals,  are  very 
fascinating  problems  of  this  sort.  (See  Fig.  59.) 

Seesaw  Figures.  —  Such  groups  as  two  boys  chopping 
wood,  two  chickens  drinking,  two  dogs  tugging  at  a 
string,  wrestling  boys,  and  similar  groups  are  interesting 
problems  of  the  seesaw  type.  (See  Fig.  60.) 

Detail.  —  Cut  the  figures  from  cardboard.  Make 
with  a  long  pedestal.  Color  with  crayon  or  water  color. 
Use  two  light  sticks  for  the  seesaw,  to  which  tack  one 


FIG.  60.  —  Some  simple  toys. 

figure  in  a  vertical  position  and  the  other  on  a  slant. 
Fasten  to  each  stick  with  one  tack.  If  a  central  figure 
is  used,  tack  firmly  to  lower  stick.  Work  the  figure  by 
moving  the  upper  stick  while  the  lower  one  is  held  firm. 
Toys.  —  A  box  of  carpenter's  scraps  of  soft  wood  will 
supply  material  for  a  variety  of  toys  which  may  be  made 
by  the  children  themselves,  thereby  more  than  doubling 
the  fun.  A  few  suggestions  are  given  in  detail.  The 
making  of  these  will  suggest  others.  (See  Fig.  60.) 


ANIMALS   AND    TOYS 


ICQ 


Doll's  Swing.  —  A  heavy  block  for  a  base,  two  tall 
uprights,  and  a  crosspiece  will  make  the  frame.  Make 
a  seat  from  cardboard  or  use  the  end  of  a  small  box  and 
suspend  from  crossbar. 

Doll's  Teeter.  —  Use  a  heavy  block  for  a  base.  Two  up- 
rights with  double-pointed  tacks  or  notches  in  the  top. 
Drive  two  double-pointed  tacks  in  lower  side  of  teeter 
board  at  center.  Slip  a  small  rod  through  the  tacks 
and  rest  in  the  notches  on  the  uprights.  Suspend  a 
weight  by  cords  from  the  lower  side  of  the  board,  adjust 
until  the  board  balances.  The  ends  of  the  board  should 
be  provided  with  box  seats  for  the  doll's 
comfort. 

Railroad  Train.  —  For  cars,  saw  pieces 
from  a  square  stick.  For  engine,  use 
pieces  of  broomstick  or  other  cylinder. 
Soft  wood  is  better  if  'obtainable.  For 
wheels,  use  pieces  of  small  broomstick 
or  dowel  rod.  (See  Fig.  56.) 

Let  the  children  study  real  trains  and 
make  the  best  imitation  they  can  work 
out. 

Jumping  Jacks.  —  Cut  the  figure  from 
light  weight  cardboard.  Make  head  and 
body  in  one  piece.  Cut  two  arms  long 
enough  to  reach  well  above  the  head. 
Make  the  hands  very  large.  Cut  two 
legs  either  with  or  without  a  joint  at  the 
knee.  Color  with  crayon  or  water  color. 

Fasten  the  legs  and  arms  to  the  body  with  a  string 
tied  loosely  to  allow  free  movements.  Make  a  frame 


FIG.  6 1.  —  Adjust- 
ing jumping  jack 
in  frame. 


110  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

of  two  light  stiff  sticks  and  a  crosspiece  fastened  between 
them  near  the  lower  end  of  the  sticks.  Fasten  with 
a  single  nail  at  either  end  of  the  crosspiece.  Cut  notches 
near  the  upper  ends  of  the  sticks.  Fasten  the  figure  to 
the  frame  by  a  stout  thread.  Use  a  coarse  needle  and 
carry  the  thread  through  the  hands  twice,  leaving  a  loop 
on  each  side  to  slip  over  the  ends  of  the  sticks  into 
the  notches.  A  small  block  or  folded  bit  of  cardboard 
between  the  hands  to  keep  them  apart  will  improve  the 
movement  of  the  toy.  Adjust  the  figure  so  that  the 
threads  are  parallel  when  the  figure  hangs  below  the 
inverted  frame.  (See  Fig.  61.)  When  the  frame  is 
held  upright,  the  figure  will  hang  between  the  sticks 
and  the  threads  will  be  crossed.  Press  the  lower  ends 
of  the  frame  together  to  make  the  jumping  jack 
perform. 

Merry-go-round.  —  Use  a  heavy  block  for  a  base.  Bore 
a  hole  in  the  center  and  insert  a  square  stick,  about 
10  in.  long.  For  arms,  use  two  pieces  about  |  in. 
thick  and  10  in.  long.  Fasten  these  together  in  the  form 
of  a  cross  and  nail  to  the  top  of  the  upright  with  a  single 
nail.  An  awl  may  be  used  to  make  the  hole  a  little 
larger  than  the  nail  so  that  the  arms  will  revolve  easily. 
Suspend  a  box  seat  of  wood  or  cardboard  from  each  arm 
to  complete  the  toy.  (See  Fig.  59.) 

Games.  —  Ring  Toss.  —  Use  two  square  pieces  of 
board  at  least  f  in.  thick,  one  piece  larger  than  the  other. 
Bore  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the  smaller  piece  with  a 
f-in.  auger  bit. 

For  the  upright  use  a  stick  J  in.  square  and  about  1 2 
in.  long.  Whittle  the  corners  of  the  stick  until  it  fits 


ANIMALS   AND   TOYS  III 

firmly  into  the  hole  in  the  small  board.  Nail  the  small 
board  to  the  large  one. 

For  the  rings  use  reeds,  Venetian  iron,  or  hoops  from 
small  buckets  or  cart  wheels.  Wrap  the  rings  with 
raffia  or  yarn.  Make  at  least  three  rings  of  varying 
sizes.  (See  Fig.  60.) 

Playing  ring  toss  and  keeping  tally  makes  an  excellent 
number  game. 

Ten  Pins.  —  From  bogus  or  other  heavy  paper  roll 
and  paste  cylinders  about  three  inches  in  diameter  and 
about  twelve  inches  long.  These  may  be  set  on  end, 
and  any  of  the  common  ten  pin  games  played  with  the 
help  of  a  soft  rubber  ball.  Keeping  tally  gives  excellent 
practice  in  number. 

Bean  Bag  Game.  —  Draw  three  circles  of  different  sizes 
on  a  large  sheet  of  heavy  cardboard.  Carefully  cut  out 
the  circles  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife.  Mount  a  picture 
of  some  animal  on  each  piece  cut  out. 

Fasten  the  pieces  back  in  place  by  a  single  cloth  hinge 
pasted  on  the  back,  and  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  circle. 

Tack  the  sheet  of  cardboard  to  a  light  wooden  frame 
to  keep  it  from  bending. 

Let  the  frame  rest  against  the  wall  at  a  slight  angle. 
Bean  bags  thrown  at  the  animals  will  knock  them  down 
as  they  go  through  the  holes.  The  bean  bags  should  be 
made  by  the  children.  Various  number  games  may  be 
played  with  bean  bags. 


CHAPTER   IX 
HOLIDAYS 

THE  various  holidays  which  come  during  the  year 
mean  so  much  to  little  children  that  they  should  receive 
special  notice  and  should  suggest  the  form  of  handwork 
to  be  done  at  the  time. 

Thanksgiving  suggests  attention  to  harvest  products, 
to  be  modeled  in  clay,  cut  from  paper,  or  drawn  with 
crayon ;  the  making  of  sand-table  scenes  showing  early 
New  England  life  in  various  phases ;  the  making  of 
various  utensils  and  commodities  of  the  primitive  home 
which  differ  from  our  own ;  as,  for  example,  the  making 
of  candles,  the  hour  glass,  and  the  sundial. 

Christmas  suggests  the  making  of  toys  and  all  sorts 
of  things  suitable  for  gifts.  If  the  work  centers  around 
the  Christmas  tree,  it  offers  opportunity  for  cooperation 
in  making  trimming  such  as  paper  chains,  pop-corn 
strings,  etc.,  as  well  as  individual  gifts.  If  a  tree  is  not 
obtainable,  a  box  may  be  dressed  up  in  imitation  of 
Santa's  sleigh  drawn  by  cardboard  reindeer.  Whatever 
else  is  done  in  honor  of  the  visit  of  St.  Nicholas,  the  spirit 
of  giving  should  be  cultivated  by  making  gifts  to  some 
younger  or  less  fortunate  groups.  Picture  books  may 
be  made  for  sick  children,  doll  furniture  and  other  toys 
for  the  orphans'  home  or  some  family  of  unfortunates. 
A  sack  might  arrive  a  week  or  two  before  Christmas 

112 


HOLIDAYS  113 

accompanied  by  a  telegram  from  Santa  requesting  con- 
tributions to  help  him  out  in  some  specific  way  and  stating 
that  it  would  be  called  for  at  a  certain  time.  When  a 
"  real  Santa  "  calls  for  the  sack,  he  may  leave  in  its  place 
another  containing  some  unexpected  treat  for  the  children 
themselves.  The  gifts  which  the  children  contribute 
should  be  of  their  own  making,  that  they  may  have  a  full 
sense  of  real  giving  and  not  merely  the  pleasure  of  de- 
livering the  parcels  mother  has  provided. 

Valentine's  Day  offers  an  opportunity  for  developing 
appreciation  of  a  higher  form  of  art  than  the  shop  win- 
dows frequently  offer,  and  also  investing  with  pure, 
sweet  sentiment  a  day  which  means,  in  some  quarters, 
only  vulgar  sentimentality  and  coarse  jests. 

Easter  offers  a  similar  opportunity  for  emphasis  on 
the  fine  things  in  color  and  subjects  for  greeting  cards. 
The  season  also  suggests  emphasis  on  study  of  budding 
plants  and  young  animal  life  by  means  of  cutting,  paint- 
ing, and  modeling. 

Hero  days  suggest  a  variety  of  forms  of  handwork, 
such  as  picture  making  with  crayons  or  cuttings,  or  pic- 
tures in  three  dimensions  on  the  sand  table,  for  intensify- 
ing important  phases  of  the  hero's  life ;  illustrated  stories 
in  booklet  form ;  and  the  making  of  "  properties  "  for 
dramatic  representations.  These  things  offer  a  welcome 
change  from  the  stereotyped  "  Speaking  day,"  and 
stimulate  originality  and  self-reliance. 

So  much  has  been  written  and  so  many  suggestions 
are  constantly  being  offered  in  school  journals  that 
specific  suggestions  for  things  to  make  seem  superfluous 
here. 


114  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

Individual  Problems.  —  While  community  problems 
must  form  a  large  part  of  the  handwork  in  the  lower 
grades,  it  is  desirable  to  have,  from  time  to  time,  proj- 
ects which  seek  a  definite  result  from  each  pupil.  In 
the  community  problem  it  is  possible  for  the  strong 
pupil  to  monopolize  the  values  of  the  work  by  imposing 
his  ideas  upon  his  fellows  and  by  doing  all  the  work 
while  the  slower  pupils  are  getting  ready  to  begin.  In 
the  same  way  it  is  possible  for  the  lazy  pupil  to  shirk 
much  of  his  responsibility  through  the  eagerness  of  his 
companions.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  maintain  a 
balance  by  the  use  of  individual  problems  of  a  more 
definite  type.  These  may  often  be  specific  parts  of  the 
community  problem,  but  this  will  not  meet  all  the  needs 
of  the  case.  The  special  days  offer  excellent  occasion 
for  work  of  this  sort  in  addition  to  the  cooperative  prob- 
lems which  are  undertaken  by  the  class  as  a  whole. 


CHAPTER  X 
GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  AND   SUMMARY 

Modification  of  Outlines.  —  All  the  projects  outlined 
in  the  foregoing  pages  are  capable  of  modification  and 
adaptation  to  the  needs  of  several  grades.  For  this 
reason,  in  nearly  every  problem,  many  more  suggestions 
are  offered  than  will  often  be  applicable  in  any  one  in- 
stance of  its  development.  The  directions  are,  for  the 
most  part,  given  from  the  standpoint  of  the  first  grade, 
on  the  principle  that  it  is  easier  to  add  to  the  detail  of  a 
problem  than  to  simplify  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
directions  are  not  generally  specific  in  detail,  in  order 
to  prevent  as  far  as  possible  a  mechanical  copying  of  any 
project. 

Emphasis  on  Self-expression.  —  It  is  desired  to  place 
special  emphasis  upon  the  point  that  each  project  under- 
taken, if  it  is  to  reach  its  highest  value,  must  come  as 
fully  as  possible  from  the  children  themselves  and  be  to 
the  very  fullest  extent  their  self-expression. 

Not  any  house  described  in  this  book,  nor  any  house 
seen  in  another  schoolroom,  nor  even  the  house  which  I , 
as  teacher,  plan  in  detail,  will  be  most  valuable  to  my  class; 
but  rather  our  house,  which  we,  teacher  and  pupils  work- 
ing together,  evolve  to  suit  our  own  needs  and  fancies, 
using  suggestions  gathered  from  every  available  source, 
but  adapting  them  to  our  own  needs. 

"5 


Il6  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

Self -directed  Activity  and  Discipline. — The  terms 
"  self  -directed  activity"  and  "  self-expression  "  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  idea  of  letting  the  children  do  as 
they  please  in  any  random  and  purposeless  fashion.  If 
one  were  to  start  out  to  escort  a  group  of  children  to  a 
certain  hilltop,  it  is  quite  probable  that  some  of  them 
would  run  part  of  the  way.  Others  would  walk  in  twos 
and  threes,  and  these  would  change  about.  They  would 
halt  to  look  at  things  that  attracted  their  attention. 
The  leader  would  halt  them  to  observe  some  interesting 
point  which  they  might  otherwise  miss.  Should  any  of 
them  wander  from  the  right  path  the  leader  would  call 
them  back,  and  any  frail  child  would  be  helped  over  the 
hard  places.  Yet  with  all  this  freedom  the  group  might 
move  steadily  forward  and  reach  the  hilltop  in  due  time. 

All  progress  up  the  hill  of  knowledge  should  follow  a 
similar  plan.  The  teacher  should  have  a  very  definite 
idea  of  the  end  to  be  attained.  The  children  should 
work  with  a  purpose,  and  that  purpose  should  be  of  such 
immediate  interest  to  them  that  they  would  be  anxious 
to  attain  it.  They  would  then  work  earnestly,  and  dis- 
cipline would  settle  itself.  Handwork  projects  should 
be  sufficiently  simple  to  allow  each  worker  to  see  his  way 
through,  or  at  least  find  his  way  without  waiting  for 
directions  at  each  step.  Instead  of  a  blind  following 
of  such  directions  the  worker  should  at  all  times  feel 
himself  the  master  of  his  tools  and  materials  and  be  able 
to  make  them  obey  his  impulse  and  express  his  idea. 
This  attitude  toward  work  can  be  secured  only  when  the 
work  .is  kept  quite  down  to  the  level  of  the  child's  ability 
and  appreciation.  Only  by  this  means  can  we  hope  to 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS   AND   SUMMARY  117 

establish  the  inspiring  and  strengthening  "  habit  of 
success." 

Introduction  of  New  Methods.  —  The  question  arises, 
How  shall  work  of  this  sort  be  adapted  to  a  course  of 
study  which  is  already  full  and  does  not  provide  time  for 
handwork  ?  Handwork  takes  more  time  than  bookwork, 
and  children  evolve  plans  but  slowly.  If  the  teacher 
waits  for  the  children  to  evolve  plans  and  then  carry 
them  out  on  their  own  responsibility,  the  quantity  of 
work  produced  will  be  small  and  the  quality  poor  com- 
pared with  the  results  gained  by  other  methods. 

The  freer  method  must  be  justified,  not  by  its  tangible 
results,  but  by  its  value  as  a  means  of  individual  develop- 
ment. If  it  is  true  that 

"  One  good  idea  known  to  be  thine  own 
Is  worth  a  thousand  gleaned  from  fields  by  others  sown," 

then  it  follows  that  a  small  quantity  of  crude  work  may 
often  represent  greater  genuine  growth  than  a  larger 
quantity  of  nicely  finished  work,  if  the  latter  has  been 
accomplished  by  such  careful  dictation  that  individual 
thought  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  was  unnecessary. 

Common  sense  is  the  best  guide  in  introducing  a  new 
method  of  work.  Any  sudden  transition  is  likely  to  be 
disastrous.  Responsibility  in  new  fields  should  be  shifted 
from  teacher  to  pupils  as  rapidly  as  they  are  able  to  carry 
it,  but  it  should  never  be  transferred  in  wholesale  fashion. 
This  is  especially  true  of  a  class  that  is  accustomed  to  wait 
for  the  teacher's  permission  or  command  in  all  the  small 
details  of  schoolroom  life,  such  as  speaking,  moving 
about  the  room,  etc. 


Il8  PRIMARY  HANDWORK 

The  freer  methods  may  be  introduced  by  either  of 
two  plans.  In  carrying  through  the  first  sand-table 
project,  for  example,  the  teacher  may  plan  the  details 
quite  as  definitely  as  is  her  custom  in  general  work, 
assign  each  part  to  a  particular  pupil,  and  guide  his 
execution  of  it  as  far  as  necessary.  With  each  succeed- 
ing project  more  and  more  freedom  may  be  granted,  as 
the  children  become  accustomed  to  community  work 
and  learn  how  to  use  the  materials  involved.  Or,  the 
work  may  be  introduced  by  allowing  two  or  three  very 
trustworthy  pupils  to  work  out,  quite  alone,  some  simple 
project  which  will  appeal  to  the  entire  class  as  very 
desirable.  Other  projects  may  be  worked  out  by  other 
pupils  as  they  show  themselves  worthy  of  trust.  Such 
a  plan  sets  a  premium  upon  independence  and  ability 
to  direct  one's  own  actions,  and  has  a  beneficial  effect 
upon  general  discipline.  Each  individual  teacher 
must  follow  the  plan  which  best  accords  with  her 
individual  habits  and  the  conditions  under  which  she 
works.  No  rule  can  be  rated  as  best  under  any  and 
all  circumstances. 

New  and  Different  Projects.  —  Teachers  frequently 
spend  time  and  nerve  force  seeking  new  projects  sup- 
posedly to  stimulate  the  interest  of  the  children.  Often 
a  careful  examination  into  the  true  motives  back  of  the 
search  would  prove  that  it  is  not  so  much  to  stimulate 
the  interest  of  the  children  as  to  call  forth  the  admiration 
of  other  teachers.  Because  a  house  was  built  last  year 
does  not  hinder  the  building  of  another  this  year.  If 
the  children  are  allowed  ample  freedom,  the  houses  will 
not  be  alike.  If  the  teacher  is  centering  her  interest 


GENERAL    SUGGESTIONS    AND    SUMMARY  1 19 

in  the  development  of  the  children  and  not  in  the  things 
the  children  make,  the  projects  will  always  be  new  be- 
cause worked  out  in  a  new  way  by  a  different  group  of 
children.  Monotony  comes  about  through  the  teacher's 
attempt  to  plan  out  details  and  impose  them  upon  the 
children,  a  process  quite  similar  to  the  use  of  predigested 
foods. 

Quality  of  Work.  —  Methods  such  as  outlined  above 
are  sometimes  criticized  because  of  the  crudity  of  the 
results.  It  is  sometimes  argued  that  the  crude  work 
establishes  low  standards  and  that  better  finished  work 
of  a  more  useful  type  is  more  desirable  in  school  projects. 
Certainly  everything  which  is  done  in  school  should  be 
useful.  School  years  are  too  precious,  to  be  wasted,  in 
any  degree,  on  a  thing  which  is  useless.  But  it  is  im- 
portant to  have  a  right  standard  for  measuring  the  use- 
fulness of  a  project.  Since  it  is  the  child's  interest  an4 
effort  which  are  to  be  stimulated,  his  work  must  be  useful 
from  his  point  of  view.  The  things  that  he  works  upon 
must  be  valuable  to  him  personally.  It  is  not  enough 
for  the  teacher  to  be  satisfied  with  the  value  of  the  sub- 
ject matter.  It  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be  self-evident  to 
the  child  himself. 

In  the  growing  period  a  child  is  always  anxious  to 
excel  himself  and  attain  a  higher  level,  nearer  the  adult 
standards.  He  measures  his  growth,  not  only  in  inches, 
but  in  ability  to  run  faster,  jump  farther,  count  higher, 
and  so  on.  So  long  as  he  is  stimulated  by  an  interesting 
motive  he  puts  forth  his  best  effort.  It  is  only  when  we 
set  him  tasks  and  demand  blind  obedience  that  he  lags. 
If  his  crude  work  represents  his  best  effort,  honestly 


120  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

put  forth,  he  will,  and  he  does,  desire  to  do  something 
better  each  time  he  tries.  If  he  is  permitted  to  work 
freely  upon  projects  of  immediate  interest  to  him,  he  not 
only  becomes  familiar  with  various  materials  and  the 
purposes  they  may  serve,  but  he  also  begins  to  realize 
his  inability  to  make  them  always  obey  his  impulse. 
As  soon  as  he  discovers  that  there  are  better  and  easier 
ways  of  working  which  bring  about  more  satisfactory 
results,  he  is  anxious  to  learn  the  tricks  of  the  trade ;  and 
he  comes  to  the  later,  more  technical  courses  in  hand- 
work, not  only  with  more  intelligence,  but  also  with  an 
appreciation  of  their  value  which  is  reflected  in  the 
quality  of  his  work. 

Summary.  —  The  last  word,  as  the  first  in  this  little 
book,  would  stress  the  fact  that  it  is  always  possible  to 
improve  present  conditions. 

Activity  is  an  essential  factor  in  a  child's  development 
in  school  as  well  as  out.  Handwork  is  an  important 
phase  of  this  necessary  activity.  Neither  lack  of  time, 
scarcity  of  material,  nor  lack  of  training  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  is  a  sufficient  excuse  for  failure  to  use  some 
handwork  in  every  school.  Much  can  be  accomplished 
with  materials  which  are  to  be  found  anywhere,  without 
using  more  time  than  is  ordinarily  devoted  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  with  better  results,  if  we  will  but  realize  that 
educative  handwork  is  not  confined  to  the  making  of  a 
few  books,  boxes,  mats,  or  baskets  after  a  prescribed 
pattern,  however  good  in  themselves  these  may  be,  but 
is  also  a  means  through  which  we  may  teach  other  subject 
matter. 

We  not  only  learn  to  do  by  doing,  but  we  come  to 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS   AND    SUMMARY  121 

know  through  trying  to  do.  And  we  often  learn  more 
through  our  failures  than  through  our  successes.  We 
defraud  the  children  if  we  deprive  them  of  this  important 
factor  in  their  development.  Any  teacher  who  is  willing 
to  begin  with  what  she  has  and  let  the  children  do  the  best 
they  can  with  it,  will  find  unexpected  resources  and 
greater  opportunities  at  every  hand. 

Let  us  not  allow  ourselves  to  grow  disheartened  through 
vain  wishes  for  the  impossible  or  for  the  advantages  of 
some  other  field,  but  attack  our  own  with  vigor  and 
determination ;  for 

"The  common  problem,  yours,  mine,  every  one's 
Is  —  not  to  fancy  what  were  fair  in  life 
Provided  it  could  be  —  but,  finding  first 
What  may  be,  then  find  how  to  make  it  fair 
Up  to  our  means." 


REFERENCES 

DEWEY  —  The  School  and  the  Child;  School  and  Society; 
The  Child  and  the  Curriculum. 

O'SHEA  —  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education. 

SCOTT  —  Social  Education. 

DOPP  —  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Education. 

BONE  —  The  Service  of  the  Hand  in  the  School. 

SARGENT  —  Fine  and  Industrial  Arts. 

Row  —  The  Educational  Meaning  of  Manual  Arts  and  In- 
dustries. 

CHARTERS  —  Methods  of  Teaching. 

BAGLEY  —  The  Educative  Process. 

RUSSELL  —  The  School  and  Industrial  Life.  Educational  Re- 
view, Dec.  1909. 

SYKES  AND  BONSER  —  Industrial  Education.  Teachers  College 
Record,  Sept.  1911. 

BENNETT  —  The  Place  of  Manual  Arts  in  Education.  Educa- 
tional Review,  Oct.  1911. 

RICHARDS  —  Handwork  in  the  Primary  School.  Manual 
Training  Magazine,  Oct.  1901. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASSROOM  USE 

Coping  Saw  Work JOHNSTON 

School  Drawing DANIELS 

Little  Folks  Handy  Book BEARD 

World  at  Work  Series DUTTON 

Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands SHAW 

How  We  Are  Fed CHAMBERLAIN 

How  We  Are  Clothed CHAMBERLAIN 

How  We  Are  Sheltered ^     ,    CHAMBERLAIN 

123 


124  PRIMARY   HANDWORK 

Continents  and  their  People CHAMBERLAIN 

How  the  World  is  Fed CARPENTER 

How  the  World  is  Clothed CARPENTER 

How  the  World  is  Housed CARPENTER 

Around  the  World  Series TOLMAN 

Youth's  Companion  Series LANE 

The  Bird  Woman CHANDLER 

The  Tree  Dwellers DOPP 

The  Early  Cave  Men DOPP 

The  Later  Cave  Men .    DOPP 


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BOOKS   FOR  TEACHERS 

Published  Recently  by  The  Macmillan  Company 


ARNOLD ,  FELIX.  A  Text-book  of  School  and  Class  Management. 
I — Theory  and  Practice.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xxii  +  409  pages, 

Index $1-25 

II  —  Administration  and  Hygiene.     Cloth,  xii  +  292  pages    .  $1.00 

— Attention  and  Interest.     Cloth,  viii  +  272  pages $1.00 

B  AGLEY,  WILLIAM  CHANDLER,  Director  of  School  of  Education, 
University  of  Illinois.     Classroom  Management:   Its  Princi- 
ples and  Technique.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xvii  +  352  pages      .     .     .  $1.25 
— Craftsmanship  in  Teaching.     Cloth,  i2mo,  ix  +  247  pages     .     .  $1.10 
— Educational  Values.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xx  +  267  pages  .     .     .     .     .  $1.10 
— The  Educative  Process.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xix  + 358  pages     .     .     .$1.25 

BANCROFT,  JESSIE  H.,  Assistant  Director  Physical  Training, 
Public  Schools,  New  York  City.  The  Posture  of  School  Chil- 
dren with  Its  Home  Hygiene  and  New  Efficiency  Methods  for 
School  Training.  Cloth,  8vo,  illustrated,  xii +  327  pages  .  .  $1.50 

BROWN,  JOHN  FRANKLIN,  Ph.D.,  formerly  Professor  in  Educa- 
tion and  Inspector  of  High  Schools  for  the  State  University 
of  Iowa.  The  American  High  School.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xii +  498 
pages $1.40 

— The  Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools  in  Germany  and 

the  United  States.     Cloth,  i2mo,  x  +  325  pages,  bibliography  $1.25 

BUTLER,  NICHOLAS  MURRAY,  President  of  Columbia  University. 
The  Meaning  of  Education,  and  Other  Essays  and  Addresses. 
Cloth,  1 2 mo,  xii  +  230  pages $1.00 

CHUBB,  PERCIVAL,  Principal  of  High  School  Department,  Ethical ' 

Culture  School,  New  York.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xvii +  411  pages  .  $1.00 

COLVIN,  STEPHEN  SHELDON,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology at  Brown  University.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xxv  +  336  pages  $1.25 

COLVIN,  STEPHEN  SHELDON,  Professor  of  Educational  Psychol- 
ogy, Brown  University,  and  BAGLEY,  WILLIAM  CHANDLER, 
Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Illinois.  Human  Be- 
havior :  A  First  Book  in  Psychology  for  Teachers.  Cloth,  1 2mo, 
xvi  +  336  pages $1.00 

CUBBERLEY,  ELLWOOD  P.     Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  the  History 
of  Education.     With  Selected  Bibliographies  and  Suggested 
Readings.     Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     In  two 
parts.     Part  I,  v  + 129  pages,  $1.50;  Part  II,  xv  + 361  pages  $1.50 
Complete  in  one  volume $2.60 

DRESSLAR,  FLETCHER  B.,  Ph.D.,  Specialist  in  School  Hygiene 
and  School  Sanitation,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 
School  Hygiene.  Cloth,  8vo,  illustrated,  xi  + 369  pages  .  .$1.25 

DE  GARMO,  CHARLES,  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Edu- 
cation in  Cornell  University.  Interest  and  Education.  Cloth, 
i2mo,  xviiH-230  pages •.'.•'•  $i-°o 


BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS  —  Continued 


BE  GARMO,  CHARLES.     The  Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 

Vol.  I,  Studies.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xii  +  299  pages S1-2^ 

Vol.  II,  Processes  of  Instruction,     xii  +  200  pages   ....  $1.00 
Vol.  Ill,  Ethical  Training.     x+ 220  pages $1.00 

BUTTON,  SAMUEL  T.,  Professor  of  School  Administration  in 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  and  Superintendent 
of  the  College  Schools.  Social  Phases  of  Education  in  the 
School  and  the  Home.  Cloth,  i2mo,  ix  + 259  pages  .  .  .  $1.25 

BUTTON,  SAMUEL  T.,  Professor  of  School  Administration  in 
Teachers  College,  and  SNEBBEN,  BAVID,  Commissioner  of 
Education,  State  of  Massachusetts,  with  an  Introduction  by 
NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER,  Ph.B.,  LL.B.,  President  of  Col- 
umbia University.  The  Administration  of  Public  Education  in 
the  United  States.  Cloth,  i2mo,  viii  +  595  pages,  bibliography  $1.75 

FARRINGTON,  FREDERIC  ERNEST,  Ph.B.,  Associate  Professor 
of  Educational  Administration,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  Commercial  Education  in  Germany.  Cloth,  i2mo, 
ix  + 258  pages $1.10 

FOGHT,  HAROLD  W.,  Professor  of  Education,  Midland  College. 

The  American  Rural  School.     Cloth,  xxii  +  366  pages   .     .     .$1.25 

GANONG,  WILLIAM  F.,  Ph.B.,  Smith  College.     The  Teaching 

Botanist.     Rewritten  edition.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xii +  444  pages  $1.25 

GRAVES,  FRANK  PIERREPONT,  Ph.B.,  Professor  of  the  History 
of  Education  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Great  Ed- 
ucators of  Three  Centuries.  Cloth,  i2mo,  viii+  289  pages  .  $1.10 

— A  History  of  Education  Before  the  Middle  Ages.  Cloth,  i2mo, 

xiv  + 304  pages $1.10 

— A  History  of  Education  During  the  Middle  Ages  and  The  Transi- 
tion to  Modern  Times.  Cloth,  1 2mo,  xv +3 28  pages  .  .  .  $1.10 

— A  History  of  Education  in  Modern  Times.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xv  +  410 

pages $1.10 

— Peter  Ramus  and  the  Educational  Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth 

Century.  Cloth,  i2mo,  ix+ 226  pages $1.25 

GREGORY,  B.  C.,  Late  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  Trenton, 
New  Jersey,  and  in  Chelsea,  Massachusetts.  Better  Schools. 
Cloth,  1 2mo,  vii  + 283  pages $1.25 

HALLECK,  REUBEN  POST.  The  Education  of  the  Central  Ner- 
vous System.  A  Study  of  Foundations,  especially  of  Sensory 
and  Motor  Training.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xii  +  258  pages  .  .  .  $1.00 

HANUS,  PAUL  H.,  Professor  of  the  History  and  Art  of  Teaching 
in  Harvard  University.  A  Modern  School.  Cloth,  i2mo, 
x-f  306  pages $1.25 

— Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values.  Cloth,  i2mo,  vii  + 

221  pages $1.00 


BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS  —  Continued 


HENDERSON,  ERNEST  N.,  Professor  of  Education  and  Philoso- 
phy in  Adelphi  College,  Brooklyn.  The  Principles  of  Edu- 
cation. Cloth,  8vo,  xiv  +  570  pages $1.75 

HERRICK,  CHESSMAN  A.,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  School  of  Com- 
merce, Philadelphia  Central  High  School.  Cloth,  xv  +  3y8 
pages .' $1.25 

HORNE,  HERMAN  HARRELL,  Assistant  Professor  of  Philosophy 
and  Pedagogy  in  Dartmouth  College.  The  Philosophy  of 
Education.  Cloth,  8vo,  xvii  +  3c>5  pages $1.50 

— The  Psychological  Principles  of  Education.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xiii  + 

435  Pages $1.75 

— Idealism  in  Education.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xxi+ 183  pages  .     .     .     .$1.25 

HOLTZ,  FREDERICK  L.,  A.M.,  Head  of  the  Mofcel  School,  Brook- 
lyn Training  School  for  Teachers,  New  Yckk  City.  Princi- 
ples and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography.  C^th,  i2mo,  xii  + 

359  pages % $1.10 

HUEY,  EDMUND  B.,  of  the  Western  University  o^fcmsylvania. 

The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading.     C Is th^^^Po ,  xy H~ii 
469  pages ^W"  ."**'  $1.40 

JONES,  OLIVE  M.,  LEARY,  ELEANOR  G.,  and  QUISH,  AGNES  E. 
Teaching  Children  to  Study.  The  Group  System  applied. 
Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  viii  +  i93  pages $0.80 

KILPATRTCK,  VAN  EVRIE.  Departmental  Teaching  in  Elemen- 
tary Schools.  Cloth,  1 2mo,  xiii  +  130  pages $0.60 

KIRKPATRICK,  EDWIN  A.,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School, 
Fitchburg,  Mass.  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study.  Cloth,  1 2mo, 
xxi  +  384  pages $1.25 

- — Genetic  Psychology.     Cloth,  xv  + 3  73  pages $1.25 

MACVANNEL,  JOHN  ANGUS,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the  Philosophy 
of  Education  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.  Out- 
line of  a  Course  in  the  Philosophy  of  Education.  Cloth,  i2mo, 
ix  +  207  pages $O.QO 

MAJOR,  DAVID  R.,  Professor  of  Education  in  the  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity. First  Steps  in  Mental  Growth.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xiv  + 

360  pages $1.25 

MANGOLD,  GEORGE  B.,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Director  St.  Louis 
School  of  Social  Economy.  Child  Problems.  Cloth,  i2mo, 
xv +  381  pages $1.25 

MANN,  C.  RIBORG,  Associate  Professor  of  Physics,  The  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago.  The  Teaching  of  Physics  for  Purposes  of 
General  Education.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xxv  +  3O4  pages  .  .  .  $1.25 

McKEEVER,  WILLIAM  A.,  Professor  of  Child  Welfare  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kansas.  Farm  Boys  and  Girls.  Cloth,  1 2mo,  illus- 
trated, xviii  +  3  26  pages $1.50 

—Training  the  Boy.     Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  xvi  +  368  pages     .  $1.50 


BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS  —  Continued 


McKEEVER,  WILLIAM  A.     The  Industrial  Training  of  the  Boy. 

Cloth,  1 2mo,  illustrated,  viii+  72  pages $0.50 

— Training  the  Girl.     Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  xviii  +  337  pages   .  $1.50 

MONROE,   PAUL.     A  Text-book  in  the   History  of   Education. 

Cloth,  i2mo,  xxiii  +  277  pages $1.90 

— A  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education.     For  the  Greek  and 

Roman  Period.     Cloth,  8vo,  xiii +  515  pages  .     ..,,..  $2.25 

O'SHEA,  M.  V.,  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education, 
University  of  Wisconsin.  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education. 
Cloth,  1 2mo,  xiii +  3 20  pages .  $1.25 

— Linguistic  Development  and  Education.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xvii  + 

347  pages $1.25 

PARK,  JOSEPH  C.,  State  Normal  and  Training  School,  Oswego, 
New  York.  Educational  Woodworking  for  Home  and  School. 
Cloth,  1 2mo,  illustrated,  xii  + 2 10  pages '  .  $1.00 

PERRY,  ARTHUR  C.,  Jr.,  Ph.D.,  Principal  of  Public  School 
No.  85,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.  The  Management  of  a  City  School. 
Cloth,  i2mo,  viii  +  350  pages $1.25 

— Outlines  of  School  Administration.    Cloth,  i2mo,  viii  +  452  pages  $1.40 

PYLE,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology  in  the  University  of  Missouri.  The  Ex- 
amination of  School  Children.  Cloth,  i2mo,  v  +  70  pages  .  $0.50 

ROWE,  STUART  H.,  Professor  of  Psychology  and  the  History  of 
Education,  Training  School  for  Teachers,  Brooklyn,  New 
York.  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.  Cloth,  i2mo,  vi  + 
211  pages $0.90 

ROYCE,  JOSIAH,  Professor  of  the  History  of  Philosophy  in  Har- 
vard University.  Outlines  of  Psychology.  Cloth,  i2mo, 
xxvii  +  392  pages -' $1.9° 

SACHS,  JULIUS,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Secondary  Education  in 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.  The  American  Sec- 
ondary School  and  Some  of  its  Problems.  Cloth,  1 2mo,  xviii  + 
295  pages $1.10 

SCHULTZE,  ARTHUR,  formerly  instructor  at  New  York  Univer- 
sity on  the  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  Secondary  Schools. 
The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  Secondary  Schools.  Cloth, 
1 2mo,  xx  +  3 70  pages $1.25 

SHAW,  EDWARD  R.,  the  late.     School  Hygiene.     Cloth,   i2mo, 

vii+255  pages $1.00 

SHEARER,  WILLIAM  J.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Superintendent  of  Schools 
of  the  City  of  Elizabeth  and  County  of  Union,  N.J.  The 
Management  and  Training  of  Children.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xii-f- 
287  pages $1.5° 


BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS  —  Continued 


SMITH,  DAVID  E.,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University.  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathe- 
matics. Cloth,  1 2mo,  xv  +  31 2  pages $1.00 

SNEATH,  E.  HERSHEY,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  in  Yale  Uni- 
versity, and  HODGES,  GEORGE,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  Dean  of  the 
Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge.  Moral  Training 
in  School  and  Home.  Cloth,  i2mo,  vii  +  22i  pages  .  .  $0.80 

SNEDDEN,  DAVID  S.,  and  ALLEN,  WILLIAM  H.  For  the  New 
York  Committee  on  Physical  Welfare  of  School  Children. 
School  Reports  and  School  Efficiency.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xi+  183 
pages $1.50 

STARCH,  DANIEL,  Ph.D.,  University  of  Wisconsin.  Experi- 
ments in  Educational  Psychology.  Cloth,  i2mo,  vii  +  i83 
pages $0.90 

STRAYER,  GEORGE  DRAYTON,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Educational 
Administration.  Formerly  Adjunct  Professor  of  Elementary 
Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.  A  Brief 
Course  in  the  Teaching  Process.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xiv  +  315  pages  $1.25 

STRAYER,  GEORGE  DRAYTON,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Educational 
Administration,  and  THORNDIKE,  EDWARD  L.,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University.  Educational  Administration- 
Quantitative  Studies.  Cloth,  1 2mo,  xii  +  391  pages  .  .  .$2.00 

TAYLOR,  JOSEPH  S.,  Ph.D.,  District  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
New  York.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Reading. 
Cloth,  i2mo,  xiii  +  238  pages $0.90 

THORNDIKE,  EDWARD  L.,  Professor  of  Educational  Psychology 
in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.  Education:  A 
First  Book.  Cloth,  i2mo,  ix+2.92  pages $1.25 

VANDEWALKER,  NINA  C.,  Director  of  Kindergarten  Training 
Department,  Milwaukee  State  Normal  School.  The  Kinder- 
garten in  American  Education.  Cloth,  i2mo,  xiii  +  274  pages, 
index $1.25 

WARD,  FLORENCE  ELIZABETH,  Professor  of  Kindergarten  Educa- 
tion, Iowa  State  Teachers  College.  The  Montessori  Method 
and  the  American  School.  Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  xvi  +  243 
pages $1.25 

WARNER,  FRANCIS.     The  Study  of  Children  and  Their  School 

Training.     Cloth,  i2mo,  xix+264  pages $1.00 


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